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The decline of vitamin D in adolescent athletes: insights from a one-year follow-up and its association with electrocardiographic changes
Open accessAbstract
Introduction: Annual health evaluations are essential for athletes to ensure fitness for competition and enable the early detection of emerging health issues. Aim: This research aimed to evaluate the longitudinal variations in vitamin D concentrations and associated physical and laboratory parameters among adolescent athletes, as well as to investigate their correlation with electrocardiographic (ECG) alterations following a one-year follow-up period. Subjects and methods: This prospective observational cohort study examined 93 adolescent male athletes (aged 11.6 ± 1.15 years, range 10–14) who underwent baseline health evaluations, including physical examination, laboratory tests [25(OH) vitamin D, parathyroid hormone, and muscle enzyme assays], and cardiovascular (CV) assessment with electrocardiography (ECG). Only patients with normal CV findings were included. Follow-ups were performed after one year. Results: At follow-up, weight, height, and muscle mass increased significantly, whereas fat mass and systolic pressure decreased. Vitamin D levels declined (21.9 ± 10.8 vs. 29.8 ± 8.6 ng/mL; p < 0.001), with compensatory rise in parathyroid hormone (38.8 ± 2.7 vs. 33.9 ± 1.6 pg/mL; p < 0.001). Among vitamin D-deficient athletes ( n = 79), ECG changes occurred in 26.6%, mainly sinus arrhythmia (15/79, 19%) and T-wave inversion (13/79, 16%). Vitamin D deficiency was associated with higher odds of T-wave inversion (OR 4.53; 95% CI 1.11–18.40; p = 0.035) and increased prevalence of U-wave and incomplete right bundle branch block. Conclusions: The drop in vitamin D levels over one year raises concerns, highlighting the need for monitoring and interventions due to vitamin D's role in musculoskeletal and CV health. Regular monitoring and preventive strategies are recommended to maintain optimal vitamin D levels and CV health among young athletes.
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TL;DR
In 93 adolescent male athletes followed for one year, serum vitamin D declined from 29.8 ± 8.6 to 21.9 ± 10.8 ng/mL and PTH rose, while several ECG changes were more prevalent among vitamin D-deficient athletes. Vitamin D deficiency was associated with higher odds of T-wave inversion, though causality was not established.
Key findings
- Vitamin D decreased significantly over one year (29.8 ± 8.6 to 21.9 ± 10.8 ng/mL; p < 0.001), a 27% reduction, with a compensatory PTH increase (33.9 ± 1.6 to 38.8 ± 2.7 pg/mL; p < 0.001).
- Anthropometric changes included increased weight (40.2 ± 6.8 to 42.7 ± 9.2 kg; p = 0.036), height (151.4 ± 9.2 to 155.4 ± 12.1 cm; p = 0.012), and skeletal muscle mass (16.6 ± 1.4 to 17.2 ± 1.6 kg; p = 0.008), plus decreased fat mass (9.4 ± 0.7 to 8.8 ± 0.8 kg; p < 0.001) and systolic blood pressure (113.3 ± 9.7 to 109.3 ± 11.4 mmHg; p = 0.011).
- Among vitamin D-deficient athletes (n = 79), ECG changes occurred in 26.6%, mainly sinus arrhythmia (15/79, 19%) and T-wave inversion (13/79, 16%). Deficiency was associated with higher odds of T-wave inversion (OR 4.53; 95% CI 1.11–18.40; p = 0.035), with trends for RVCD/incomplete RBBB (OR 8.93; p = 0.082) and U-wave (OR 10.60; p = 0.061).
- T-wave axis decreased significantly (40.5 ± 7.7° to 38.2 ± 6.4°; p = 0.028); other ECG parameters did not differ significantly. Vitamin D correlated positively with calcium (r = 0.429; p < 0.001) and phosphorus (r = 0.408; p < 0.001), and negatively with PTH (r = −0.215; p = 0.039).
Methods
- Prospective observational cohort study of 93 adolescent male athletes aged 10–14 years (mean 11.6 ± 1.15 years), recruited from local sports clubs in Japan, with baseline and one-year follow-up assessments; athletes with chronic illness, cardiovascular abnormalities, or prior vitamin D supplementation were excluded.
- Assessments included physical examination with anthropometrics and blood pressure, fasting laboratory tests for 25(OH) vitamin D, PTH, TSH, ferritin, calcium, phosphorus, muscle enzymes (CK, LDH), and CBC, plus standard 12-lead ECG interpreted by two blinded pediatric cardiologists with a senior electrophysiologist resolving disagreements.
- Statistical analysis used paired t-tests, chi-square/Fisher’s exact tests, Pearson correlation, linear and logistic regression, ROC curves with Youden’s J, and Firth’s penalized logistic regression for sparse ECG subgroups; power analysis indicated ≥84 participants needed for a medium effect size (d = 0.3).
Limitations
- Stated: the sample was exclusively adolescent male athletes, excluding females and adults; the one-year follow-up was insufficient for long-term effects; no quantitative data on training schedule, sun exposure, or extravascular vitamin D stores were available; lifestyle and genetic confounders were uncontrolled; ECG subgroup analyses were exploratory and limited by small cell counts, prompting Firth’s penalized logistic regression.
- Evident from the text: the study was a single cohort without a non-athlete or supplemented control group, and the conclusion notes that vitamin D deficiency was associated with ECG changes but was “not proven to cause these changes.”
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![Figure 1 Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves of anthropometric variables (body mass index, skeletal muscle mass, and fat mass) for predicting a decline in serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D [25(OH)D] levels after one-year follow-up. The diagonal dashed line represents the line of no discrimination (AUC = 0.5). The corresponding area-under-the-curve (AUC) values were: body mass index = 0.59 (95% CI: 0.42–0.78), skeletal muscle mass = 0.55 (95% CI: 0.37–0.72), and fat mass = 0.54 (95% CI: 0.36–0.70); all non-significant (p > 0.05).](/paper-figures/3f4d48d9ae0849bc917f73c3a04e630f/the-decline-of-vitamin-d-in-adolescent-athletes-insights-from-a-one-year-follow-figure-1.jpg)
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“Vitamin D deficiency was associated with higher odds of T-wave inversion (OR 4.53; 95% CI 1.11–18.40; p = 0.035)”
§ The decline of vitamin D in adolescent athletes: insights from a one-year follow-up and its association with electrocardiographic changes > Abstract > Results
plainstates an associationn = 79 ·- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“parathyroid hormone (PTH) levels increased significantly (38.8 ± 2.7 vs. 33.9 ± 1.6 pg/mL; p < 0.001).”
§ The decline of vitamin D in adolescent athletes: insights from a one-year follow-up and its association with electrocardiographic changes > Results > Laboratory investigations
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“RVCD/incomplete RBBB | 2.19 | 8.93 (0.81–98.60) | 0.082 | Trend toward increased risk”
§ The decline of vitamin D in adolescent athletes: insights from a one-year follow-up and its association with electrocardiographic changes > Results > Correlation between vitamin D and electrocardiographic variables after 1-year follow-up
hedgedstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“The increase in vitamin D accounted for a 17.5% and 16.7% increase in total serum calcium and serum phosphorus, respectively and vice versa”
§ The decline of vitamin D in adolescent athletes: insights from a one-year follow-up and its association with electrocardiographic changes > Results > Correlation between vitamin D and various anthropometric and biochemical parameters after 1-year follow-up
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“fat mass significantly decreased from 9.4 ± 0.7 to 8.8 ± 0.8 kg (p < 0.001)”
§ The decline of vitamin D in adolescent athletes: insights from a one-year follow-up and its association with electrocardiographic changes > Results > Anthropometric/medical measurements
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Body-mass index (Kg/m2) | −0.016 (–2.257, 0.224)”
§ The decline of vitamin D in adolescent athletes: insights from a one-year follow-up and its association with electrocardiographic changes > Results > Correlation between vitamin D and various anthropometric and biochemical parameters after 1-year follow-up
Reported -0.016 · recomputed -1.0165
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In the paper
§ The decline of vitamin D in adolescent athletes: insights from a one-year follow-up and its association with electrocardiographic changes > Results > Correlation between vitamin D and various anthropometric and biochemical parameters after 1-year follow-up
“Anthropometric variables with high risk, including BMI, skeletal muscle mass, and fat mass, were identified as having optimal sensitivity (SE) and specificity (SP) for independently predicting a decline in vitamin D levels after a 1-year follow-up”
§ The decline of vitamin D in adolescent athletes: insights from a one-year follow-up and its association with electrocardiographic changes > Results > Correlation between vitamin D and various anthropometric and biochemical parameters after 1-year follow-up
“No parameter demonstrated significant discriminatory ability (AUC < 0.6, p > 0.05).”
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Metadata
- Authors
- Ramadan, M. M., Jaber, A. A., Aladwani, A. J., Alayyaf, A. E., Sayed-Noor, A. S., Ghanem, H. B., El-Sherbiny, M., Ebrahim, H. A., Ahmed, M. M., & Elsherbini, D. M. A.
- Affiliations
- Mansoura University (EG)
- University of Sharjah (AE)
- Jouf University (SA)
- Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University (SA)
- Cairo University (EG)
- Corresponding author
- Ramadan, Mahmoud Mohammed
- Elsherbini, Dalia Mahmoud Abdelmonem
- ORCID
- Venue
- Frontiers in Cardiovascular Medicine
- Publisher
- Frontiers Media SA
- Published
- 2025-12-08
- Volume
- 12
- Pages
- 1731919-1731919
- ISSN
- 2297-055X (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC12719414
- OpenAlex
- W4417103103
- Semantic Scholar
- 70b614402d942f9106cb432ff45cf085515a0076
- Cited by
- 1
- References
- 37
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1
- FWCI
- 0.51
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Frontiers in Cardiovascular Medicine (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- AlMaarefa University
- Princess Nourah Bint Abdulrahman University
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism › Vitamin D Research Studies
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Cardiology and Cardiovascular Medicine › Cardiovascular Effects of Exercise
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Orthopedics and Sports Medicine › Sports injuries and prevention
- Keywords
- vitamin D deficiency, youth athletes, electrocardiographic changes, T-wave inversion, sinus arrhythmia, parathyroid hormone, right bundle branch block, U wave, cardiovascular health, longitudinal follow-up, anthropometric changes
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