Versatility of fear-potentiated startle paradigms for assessing human conditioned fear extinction and return of fear
Open accessAbstract
Fear conditioning methodologies have often been employed as testable models for assessing learned fear responses in individuals with anxiety disorders such as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and specific phobia. One frequently used paradigm is measurement of the acoustic startle reflex under conditions that mimic anxiogenic and fear-related conditions. For example, fear-potentiated startle is the relative increase in the frequency or magnitude of the acoustic startle reflex in the presence of a previously neutral cue (e.g., colored shape; termed the conditioned stimulus or CS+) that has been repeatedly paired with an aversive unconditioned stimulus (e.g., airblast to the larynx). Our group has recently used fear-potentiated startle paradigms to demonstrate impaired fear extinction in civilian and combat populations with PTSD. In the current study, we examined the use of either auditory or visual CSs in a fear extinction protocol that we have validated and applied to human clinical conditions. This represents an important translational bridge in that numerous animal studies of fear extinction, upon which much of the human work is based, have employed the use of auditory CSs as opposed to visual CSs. Participants in both the auditory and visual groups displayed robust fear-potentiated startle to the CS+, clear discrimination between the reinforced CS+ and non-reinforced CS-, significant extinction to the previously reinforced CS+, and marked spontaneous recovery. We discuss the current results as they relate to future investigations of PTSD-related impairments in fear processing in populations with diverse medical and psychiatric histories.
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Healthy participants acquired fear to auditory stimuli comparable to participants who were fear conditioned with visual stimuli.
“Briefly, healthy participants acquired fear to auditory stimuli comparable to the participants who were fear conditioned with visual stimuli.”
From Conditioned fear associated phenotypes as robust, translational indices of trauma-, stressor-, and anxiety-related behaviors (2014) · cites this paper as [58]
Both auditory and visual groups discriminated between the CS+ and CS−, but the auditory group exhibited discrimination on blocks 1, 2, and 3 of fear acquisition, while the visual CS+ group exhibited discrimination on blocks 2 and 3.
“Both groups also discriminated between the CS+ and CS−; however, the auditory group exhibited discrimination on blocks 1, 2, and 3 of fear acquisition, while the visual CS+ group exhibited discrimination on blocks 2 and 3 of fear acquisition.”
From Conditioned fear associated phenotypes as robust, translational indices of trauma-, stressor-, and anxiety-related behaviors (2014) · cites this paper as [58]
Ten minutes after initial assessment, both groups extinguished fear, but the auditory group displayed a steeper slope of extinction, due in part to an initial increase in fear during extinction, than the visual group.
“Ten minutes after this initial assessment, these groups were shown to also extinguish fear; however, the auditory group displayed a steeper slope of extinction, due in part to an initial increase in fear during extinction, than the visual group.”
From Conditioned fear associated phenotypes as robust, translational indices of trauma-, stressor-, and anxiety-related behaviors (2014) · cites this paper as [58]
Twenty-four hours later, an extinction test showed that spontaneous recovery occurred in both groups and US-expectancy ratings increased in both groups regardless of modality.
“Twenty-four hours later an extinction test was performed. This test showed that spontaneous recovery occurred in both groups and US-expectancy ratings increased in both groups regardless of modality as well (58).”
From Conditioned fear associated phenotypes as robust, translational indices of trauma-, stressor-, and anxiety-related behaviors (2014) · cites this paper as [58]
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- Authors
- Norrholm, S. D., Anderson, K. M., Olin, I. W., Jovanovic, T., Kwon, C., Warren, V. T., McCarthy, A., Bosshardt, L., Sabree, J., Duncan, E. J., Rothbaum, B. O., & Bradley, B.
- Affiliations
- Emory University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Norrholm, Seth D.
- ORCID
- Venue
- Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience
- Publisher
- Frontiers Media SA
- Published
- 2011
- Volume
- 5
- Pages
- 77-77
- ISSN
- 1662-5153 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC3221285
- OpenAlex
- W2092682105
- Cited by
- 34
- References
- 36
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3 · 2024: 1 · 2023: 3 · 2021: 9 · 2020: 2 · 2019: 3 · 2018: 2 · 2016: 3 · 2015: 1 · 2014: 4 · 2013: 3
- FWCI
- 1.14
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- cc-by
- Locations
- Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Funders
- U.S. Department of Defense (W81XWH, W81XWH1011045)
- Emory University (RR025008)
- National Alliance for Research on Schizophrenia and Depression
- National Institutes of Health (5u19mh069056-10, W81XWH, UL1TR000454, RR025008)
- National Institute of Mental Health (U19-MH069056, MH092576, 1R01MH70880-01-A2, MH069056, R34MH083078, R01MH070880, R21MH092576)
- National Institute on Drug Abuse (R01DA018294)
- National Center for Research Resources (UL1RR025008, RR025008)
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences
- Congressionally Directed Medical Research Programs (W81XWH-08-2-0170)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory and Neural Mechanisms
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Research
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Keywords
- fear-potentiated startle, fear extinction, return of fear, fear conditioning, post-traumatic stress disorder, specific phobia, acoustic startle response, auditory conditioned stimulus, spontaneous recovery, anxiety disorders, fear processing
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