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The Temperature Dependence of Sleep
Open accessAbstract
Mammals have evolved a range of behavioural and neurological mechanisms that coordinate cycles of thermoregulation and sleep. Whether diurnal or nocturnal, sleep onset and a reduction in core temperature occur together. Non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep episodes are also accompanied by core and brain cooling. Thermoregulatory behaviours, like nest building and curling up, accompany this circadian temperature decline in preparation for sleeping. This could be a matter of simply comfort as animals seek warmth to compensate for lower temperatures. However, in both humans and other mammals, direct skin warming can shorten sleep-latency and promote NREM sleep. We discuss the evidence that body cooling and sleep are more fundamentally connected and that thermoregulatory behaviours, prior to sleep, form warm microclimates that accelerate NREM directly through neuronal circuits. Paradoxically, this warmth might also induce vasodilation and body cooling. In this way, warmth seeking and nesting behaviour might enhance the circadian cycle by activating specific circuits that link NREM initiation to body cooling. We suggest that these circuits explain why NREM onset is most likely when core temperature is at its steepest rate of decline and why transitions to NREM are accompanied by a decrease in brain temperature. This connection may have implications for energy homeostasis and the function of sleep.
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“Similarly, features of sleep-wake time series can directly capture insomnia-like patterns in sleep related to DM6,34,43,44.”
From Sleep and temperature data from wearable devices support noninvasive detection of diabetes mellitus in a large-scale, retrospective analysis (2026) · cites this paper as [34]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe check wasn’t confident either way, so it gives no verdict — never disputed.
In the citing paper
“Within a night, the complexity of the distal body temperature time series has been related to the autonomic nervous system’s (ANS) health during sleep6,34.”
From Sleep and temperature data from wearable devices support noninvasive detection of diabetes mellitus in a large-scale, retrospective analysis (2026) · cites this paper as [34]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe check wasn’t confident either way, so it gives no verdict — never disputed.
In the citing paper
“Studies suggest associations between DMN connectivity and subsequent sleep quality as measured by polysomnography, with greater DMNcortical connectivity associated with be er sleep efficiency and total sleep time [37].”
From Pre-Sleep Anxiety: Mechanisms and Therapeutic Approaches in Clinical Practice. (2026) · cites this paper as [37]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn the citing paper
“As a practical example, a hot bath (inducing vasodilation) prior to, but not immediately before the sleep period, is known to help with its initiation [9,52].”
From Human thermal perception and time of day: A review (2021) · cites this paper as [9]
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Research works printed but not linked: 1
- Ma, 2019, Galanin neurons in the hypothalamus link sleep homeostasis, body temperature and actions of the alpha2 adrenergic agonist dexmedetomidine., bioRxiv, 10.1101/565747 · DOI
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Lifelong heat exposure as a potential contributor to Alzheimer's disease resilience
Canet, G., Lucey, B. P., Blessing, E. M., & Planel, E. (2026) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.1177/13872877261433226 · Cited by 2
“Thermal therapies are also known to improve sleep, consistent with the interconnected regulatory architecture of thermoregulation and sleep – wake circuits, 5 and to reduce oxidative stress and in fl ammation while enhancing autophagy and HSP expression (reviewed in 3,6 ).”
Biologic Effects of Disrupted Sleep
Cordoza, M. L., Jones, C. W., & Dinges, D. F. (2022) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-06447-0_5 · Cited by 1
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“Previous studies have reported that sleep is affected by many factors such as caffeine intake [7], physical activity [8], room temperature in the bedroom [9], bathing [10], and eating content and timing [11].”
The Genetics of Sleep in Zebrafish
Zimmerman, A. J. (2024) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-62723-1_4 · Cited by 1
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Detection of Sleep Posture via Humidity Fluctuation Analysis in a Sensor-Embedded Pillow
Jun, W.-H., & Hong, Y.-S. (2025) · Bioengineering · doi:10.3390/bioengineering12050480 · Cited by 1
Temperature as a circadian timing cue in the visually impaired
Ball, D. M., Mann, S. S., Santhi, N., Speekenbrink, M., & Walsh, V. (2025) · Progress in brain research · doi:10.1016/bs.pbr.2025.02.004 · Cited by 2
Lansade, L., Lemarchand, J., & Ruet, A. (2025) · Applied Animal Behaviour Science · doi:10.1016/j.applanim.2025.106699 · Cited by 1
Protective Effect of a High Heat Conductivity Mattress Topper on Sleep During Heat Night
Pasquier, F., Monin, J., Tardo‐Dino, P., Beers, P. V., Quiquempoix, M., Guillard, M., Deshayes, C., Beauchamps, V., Charlot, K., Bosquet, L., et al. (2025) · Journal of Sleep Research · doi:10.1111/jsr.70137 · Cited by 1
Herberger, S., Lederer, K., Cicolin, A., Mason, M., Glos, M., Aurnhammer, C., Neumann, M., Penzel, T., Fietze, I., & Kräuchi, K. (2025) · Somnologie - Schlafforschung und Schlafmedizin · doi:10.1007/s11818-025-00519-1 · Cited by 1
“The mechanisms likely involve the intricate connections between thermoregulatory centres in the hypothalamus and sleep-regulating nuclei, where acoolercoretemperaturemayfacilitatethe neuronal processes underlying N3 sleep generation and reduce sympathetic tone [6, 23–25].”
InfluentialCohen, E., Jacobs, J., & Kink, R. J. (2025) · Pediatric Emergency Care · doi:10.1097/pec.0000000000003477 · Cited by 1
Polysomnographic Evidence of Enhanced Sleep Quality with Adaptive Thermal Regulation
Kim, J. W., Heo, S. J., Hong, J., Moon, S., Lee, D., & Yang, D. (2025) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare13192521 · Cited by 2
“Prior studies have identified the optimal mattress temperature for general sleep comfort as ranging between 28 ◦ C and 31 ◦ C [32], while some studies suggest higher limits, up to 35 ◦ C, under specific conditions [26,33].”
Mocha, Y. B., Ring, I., de Gialluly, S. S., & Keynan, O. (2025) · Royal Society Open Science · doi:10.1098/rsos.251180 · Cited by 1
Viberti, B., Bellini, S., Chancel, A., Colò, F., Branca, L., Probst, A., Schmidt, J., Rusterholz, T., Fort, P., Luppi, P., et al. (2026) · Science Translational Medicine · doi:10.1126/scitranslmed.adu8570 · Cited by 1
Disrupted temperature-sleep coupling mechanism in a Dravet syndrome mouse model
Fadila, S., Krivoshein, G., Majadly, H., Mavashov, A., Ranen, S., Brusel, M., Dopeso‐Reyes, I. G., Beucher, B., Kremer, E. J., Tolner, E. A., et al. (2026) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-026-69957-1 · Cited by 2
“A warm ambient temperature (32 – 36 °C) promotes sleep through a mechanism that involves the activation of heat-sensing neurons in the hypothalamus 29,33 .”
InfluentialBai, Z., Han, Y., Dong, Q., Xu, S., Sun, R., Jia, Y., & Sun, C. T. (2026) · Building and Environment · doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2026.114921 · Cited by 1
Microglia regulate sleep and thermoregulatory stability
Steele, N., Mannino, G. S., Green, T. R. F., Beauregard, L. L., Szewczak, M., Murphy, S. M., Opp, M. R., & Rowe, R. K. (2026) · Brain Behavior and Immunity · doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2026.106937 · Cited by 1
A Miniature Neural Recording Device to Investigate Sleep and Temperature Regulation in Mice
Hsieh, B., Harding, E. C., Wisden, W., Franks, N. P., & Constandinou, T. G. (2019) · IEEE Biomedical Circuits and Systems Conference (BioCAS) · doi:10.1109/biocas.2019.8918722 · Cited by 1
“One particular important one is temperature [3].”
Self-citationInteraction between Melatonin, Sleepiness-Alertness and Body Temperature
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Soca, R., Gedeon, T., & Attarian, H. P. (2024) · Medical Hypotheses · doi:10.1016/j.mehy.2024.111336 · Cited by 2
Stein, W., & Städele, C. (2024) · Journal of Experimental Biology · doi:10.1242/jeb.247266 · Cited by 1
Chen, C., Pan, K., Wu, C., Su, F., Wang, W., & Li, W. (2025) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2025.119762 · Cited by 1
Optogenetic Modeling of Wake-Like Transcriptional Progression in Human SH-SY5Y Neuronal CellsPreprint
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Pre-Sleep Anxiety: Mechanisms and Therapeutic Approaches in Clinical Practice.
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“The complexity of the distal body temperature time series has been related to the health of a person ’ s ANS during sleep 6,34 , and we hypothesized this association could be observed using temperature data from a fi nger-worn wearable device.”
InfluentialExploration of neuronal ensembles responsible for sleep and body temperature regulation
Ma, Y. (2019) · Spiral (Imperial College London) · doi:10.25560/80152
Sleep–Wake Cycle and Circadian Rhythms
Benarroch, E. E. (2021) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/med/9780190948894.003.0027
Hydrotherapeutic Resources for Sleep Management
de Queiroz, S. S. (2021) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-85074-6_30
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Gupta, N. J., Yadav, S., & Malik, S. (2022) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-1438055/v1
Updates Regarding Neurocircuits and Neurotransmitters Involved in the Regulation of Wakefulness
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Dormir lorsque l’on ne peut pas bien dormir
Canini, F., & Claverie, D. (2022) · Revue Défense Nationale · doi:10.3917/rdna.hs07.0123
Editorial: Behaviors and Neural Circuits in Sleep and Sedation
Harding, E. C., Zhang, Z., Dong, H., & Yu, X. (2022) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2022.930591
“The gating of sleep requires the integration of permissive signals from the environment, such as satiety status and ambient temperature, but how these are assimilated is unclear (Harding et al., 2019).”
BackgroundSelf-citationLee, H. Y., Seo, M. C., Jeon, J. E., Shin, J., & Lee, Y. J. (2022) · Chronobiology in Medicine · doi:10.33069/cim.2022.0021
“Some studies have also reported that the appropriate upper range of the Tm is 35°C [17,22].”
BackgroundHarnessing the power of a good night's sleep
Colombo, K. (2022) · Nursing Made Incredibly Easy! · doi:10.1097/01.nme.0000853792.08410.e0
Royant‐Parola, S., Hartley, S., Reynaud, È., Brion, A., Crouigneau, B., Rabeyron, T., Batissou, A., Schlesser, T., Schroder, C. M., & Sarfati, Y. (2023) · L Encéphale · doi:10.1016/j.encep.2023.05.005
Metadata
- Authors
- Harding, E. C., Franks, N. P., & Wisden, W.
- Affiliations
- Imperial College London (GB)
- UK Dementia Research Institute (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Franks, Nicholas P.
- Wisden, William
- Venue
- Frontiers in Neuroscience
- Publisher
- Frontiers Media SA
- Published
- 2019-04-24
- Volume
- 13
- Pages
- 336-336
- ISSN
- 1662-453X (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC6491889
- OpenAlex
- W2940903564
- Cited by
- 261
- References
- 159
- Citations by year
- 2026: 53 · 2025: 48 · 2024: 40 · 2023: 38 · 2022: 30 · 2021: 28 · 2020: 17 · 2019: 7
- FWCI
- 2.60
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Frontiers in Neuroscience (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Spiral (Imperial College London) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Funders
- Wellcome Trust
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Sleep and Wakefulness Research
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Endocrine and Autonomic Systems › Circadian rhythm and melatonin
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Sleep and related disorders
- Keywords
- sleep, thermoregulation, core body temperature, brain cooling, circadian rhythm, behavioral thermoregulation, nest building, skin warming, sleep latency, vasodilation, energy homeostasis, sleep function
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