Diversity of aphantasia revealed by multiple assessments of visual imagery, multisensory imagery, and cognitive style
Open accessAbstract
Aphantasia—a condition wherein individuals have a reduced or absent construction of voluntary visual imagery—is diagnosed using either the Vividness of Visual Imagery Questionnaire (VVIQ) or self-identification. However, a significant discrepancy exists between the proportions of aphantasia in the populations assessed using these two criteria. It is unclear why the reported proportions differ excessively and what percentage of people cannot form visual imagery. We investigated the replicability of the proportion of people with aphantasia using both criteria in the same population of participants. Therefore, we explored the potential causes of the discrepancy and characteristics of putative aphantasia in terms of multisensory imagery, cognitive style, and face recognition ability. First, we conducted an online sampling study (Study 1: N = 2,871) using the VVIQ, self-identification of a reduction in visual imagery, Questionnaire upon Mental Imagery (QMI), and Verbalizer-Visualizer Questionnaire (VVQ). We found that 3.7 and 12.1% fulfilled the VVIQ and self-identification criteria, respectively, roughly replicating the proportions reported in previous studies. The self-identification criterion—but not the VVIQ criterion—contains items related to face recognition; hence, we suspected that face recognition ability was factor contributing to this discrepancy and conducted another online sampling study (Study 2: N = 774). We found a significant correlation between VVIQ and face recognition ability in the control group with self-identification, but not in the group defined by low VVIQ (VVIQ ≤32). As the participants in the control group with self-identification tended to exhibit moderately high VVIQ scores but low face recognition ability, we reason that the discrepancy can be partially explained by the contamination of individual differences in face recognition ability. Additional analyses of Study 1 revealed that the aphantasia group included participants who lacked all types of sensory imagery or only visual imagery in multisensory imagery and exhibited a non-specific cognitive style. This study indicates that the VVIQ alone may be insufficient to diagnose individuals who report an inability to form visual imagery. Furthermore, we highlight the importance of multiple assessments—along with the VVIQ—to better understand the diversity of imagery in aphantasia.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Around 1% of the population experiences profound aphantasia, with the lowest possible VVIQ score (16/80).
“These studies suggest that ~1% of the population experiences profound aphantasia and have the lowest possible VVIQ score (16/80)”
From Aphantasia and hyperphantasia: exploring imagery vividness extremes (2024) · cites this paper as [36]
The Introduction reports a previous study's estimate of 0.8% for people with a complete lack of visual imagery and a VVIQ score of 16, supporting the approximate 1% figure. But this paper's Study 1 Results found only 0.07% at that score and explicitly noted that its estimate was lower, so the claim does not reflect this paper's own finding. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured2-6% of the population experiences imagery that is at best 'vague and dim', with VVIQ scores of 32/80 or less.
“whereas 2–6% experience imagery that is at best 'vague and dim', and have VVIQ scores of 32/80 or less”
From Aphantasia and hyperphantasia: exploring imagery vividness extremes (2024) · cites this paper as [36]
Study 1’s Results and discussion report that 3.7% of participants scored 16–32 on the VVIQ; Study 2 reports 2.6%, both within the claimed range. The paper does not give 2–6% as a population estimate. Its Introduction distinguishes the VVIQ threshold from a separate study’s “vague and dim” self-description, so the claim also conflates two measures. Page numbers were not available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.85)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredPeople with aphantasia show increased scores on a prosopagnosia questionnaire.
“This is reflected in increased scores on a prosopagnosia questionnaire [36”
From Aphantasia and hyperphantasia: exploring imagery vividness extremes (2024) · cites this paper as [36]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
Hierarchical Grouping to Optimize an Objective Function
Ward, J. H. (1963) · Journal of the American Statistical Association · doi:10.1080/01621459.1963.10500845 · Cited by 21,341 · see citing works
VISUAL IMAGERY DIFFERENCES IN THE RECALL OF PICTURES
MARKS, D. F. (1973) · British Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.2044-8295.1973.tb01322.x · Cited by 1,778 · see citing works
Lives without imagery – Congenital aphantasia
Zeman, A., Dewar, M., & Della Sala, S. (2015) · Cortex · doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2015.05.019 · Cited by 621 · see citing works
Object-spatial imagery: a new self-report imagery questionnaire
Blajenkova, O., Kozhevnikov, M., & Motes, M. A. (2006) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.1182 · Cited by 386 · see citing works
Verbalizer-visualizer: A cognitive style dimension.
Richardson, A. (1977) · Journal of Mental Imagery · Cited by 366 · see citing works
The new object‐spatial‐verbal cognitive style model: Theory and measurement
Blazhenkova, O., & Kozhevnikov, M. (2008) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.1473 · Cited by 363 · see citing works
Kosslyn, S. M. (2004) · Cognitive Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/02643290442000130 · Cited by 362 · see citing works
The blind mind: No sensory visual imagery in aphantasia
Keogh, R., & Pearson, J. (2018) · Cortex · doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2017.10.012 · Cited by 352 · see citing works
Reisberg, D., Pearson, D., & Kosslyn, S. M. (2002) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.858 · Cited by 340 · see citing works
The Distribution And Functions Of Mental Imagery
Betts, G. H. (1909) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 337 · see citing works
Phantasia–The psychological significance of lifelong visual imagery vividness extremes
Zeman, A., Milton, F., Della Sala, S., Dewar, M., Frayling, T., Gaddum, J., Hattersley, A., Heuerman-Williamson, B., Jones, K., MacKisack, M., et al. (2020) · Cortex · doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2020.04.003 · Cited by 336 · see citing works
A cognitive profile of multi-sensory imagery, memory and dreaming in aphantasia
Dawes, A. J., Keogh, R., Andrillon, T., & Pearson, J. (2020) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-020-65705-7 · Cited by 322 · see citing works
(2021) · doi:10.1093/texcom/tgab035 · Cited by 270 · see citing works
Shah, P., Gaule, A., Sowden, S., Bird, G., & Cook, R. (2015) · Royal Society Open Science · doi:10.1098/rsos.140343 · Cited by 236 · see citing works
Verbal and visual learning styles
Kirby, J. R., Moore, P. J., & Schofield, N. J. (1988) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/0361-476x(88)90017-3 · Cited by 223 · see citing works
Visual working memory performance in aphantasia
Jacobs, C., Schwarzkopf, D. S., & Silvanto, J. (2018) · Cortex · doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2017.10.014 · Cited by 198 · see citing works
Bainbridge, W. A., Pounder, Z., Eardley, A. F., & Baker, C. I. (2021) · Cortex · doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2020.11.014 · Cited by 195 · see citing works
Wicken, M., Keogh, R., & Pearson, J. (2021) · Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rspb.2021.0267 · Cited by 182 · see citing works
Nánay, B. (2020) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.2019.0689 · Cited by 175 · see citing works
Pounder, Z., Jacob, J., Evans, S., Loveday, C., Eardley, A. F., & Silvanto, J. (2022) · Cortex · doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2021.12.010 · Cited by 168 · see citing works
The prevalence of aphantasia (imagery weakness) in the general population
Dance, C. J., Ipser, A., & Simner, J. (2022) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2021.103243 · Cited by 167 · see citing works
Belardinelli, M. O., Palmiero, M., Sestieri, C., Nardo, D., Matteo, R. D., Londei, A., D’Ausilio, A., Ferretti, A., Gratta, C. D., & Romani, G. L. (2009) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2009.06.009 · Cited by 159 · see citing works
Zeman, A. Z., Dewar, M., & Sala, S. D. (2015) · Cortex · doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2015.08.015 · Cited by 121 · see citing works
Visual working memory in aphantasia: Retained accuracy and capacity with a different strategy
Keogh, R., Wicken, M., & Pearson, J. (2021) · Cortex · doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2021.07.012 · Cited by 119 · see citing works
Aphantasia: In search of a theory
Blomkvist, A. (2022) · Mind & Language · doi:10.1111/mila.12432 · Cited by 109 · see citing works
What is the Link Between Mental Imagery and Sensory Sensitivity? Insights from Aphantasia
Dance, C., Ward, J., & Simner, J. (2021) · Perception · doi:10.1177/03010066211042186 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
What is the relationship between Aphantasia, Synaesthesia and Autism?
Dance, C. J., Jaquiery, M., Eagleman, D. M., Porteous, D., Zeman, A., & Simner, J. (2021) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2021.103087 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
Conflicting intuitions may be based on differing abilities: Evidence from mental imaging research.
Faw, B. (2009) · Journal of Consciousness Studies · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Individual differences in mental imagery in different modalities and levels of intentionality
Floridou, G. A., Peerdeman, K. J., & Schaefer, R. S. (2021) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-021-01209-7 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
de Vito, S., & Bartolomeo, P. (2016) · Cortex · doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2015.06.013 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Imagine, and you will find – Lack of attentional guidance through visual imagery in aphantasics
Monzel, M., Keidel, K., & Reuter, M. (2021) · Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics · doi:10.3758/s13414-021-02307-z · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Anauralia: The Silent Mind and Its Association With Aphantasia
Hinwar, R. P., & Lambert, A. J. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.744213 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Monzel, M., Vetterlein, A., & Reuter, M. (2022) · Journal of Neuropsychology · doi:10.1111/jnp.12265 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Differences in relaxation by means of guided imagery in a healthy community sample.
Watanabe, E., Fukuda, S., Hara, H., Maeda, Y., Ohira, H., & Shirakawa, T. (2006) · PubMed · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Palermo, L., Boccia, M., Piccardi, L., & Nori, R. (2022) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2022.103360 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Königsmark, V., Bergmann, J., & Reeder, R. (2021) · Cortex · doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2021.05.007 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Burns, E. J., Gaunt, E., Kidane, B., Hunter, L., & Pulford, J. (2022) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/s13428-022-02017-w · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Is it really empathy? The potentially confounding role of mental imagery in self-reports of empathy
Monzel, M., Keidel, K., & Reuter, M. (2023) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2023.104354 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Monzel, M., Mitchell, D., Macpherson, F., Pearson, J., & Zeman, A. Z. (2022) · Cortex · doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2022.04.003 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Monzel, M., Vetterlein, A., & Reuter, M. (2022) · Scandinavian Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/sjop.12887 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Event‐related potentials during mental imagery of animal sounds
Wu, J., Mai, X., Chan, C. C. H., Zheng, Y., & Luo, Y. (2006) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.2006.00464.x · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Monzel, M., Mitchell, D., Macpherson, F., Pearson, J., & Zeman, A. Z. (2022) · Cortex · doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2022.02.002 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Monzel, M., & Reuter, M. (2024) · Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics · doi:10.3758/s13414-022-02645-6 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Cavedon‐Taylor, D. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.822989 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Decreased associative processing and memory confidence in aphantasiaPreprint
Wittmann, B. C., & Şatırer, Y. (2022) · Learning & Memory · doi:10.1101/lm.053610.122 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Nakashima, S. F., Ukezono, M. M., Sudo, R., Nunoi, M., Kitagami, S., Okubo, M., Toriyama, R., Morimoto, Y., & Takano, Y. (2019) · The Japanese journal of psychology · doi:10.4992/jjpsy.90.18235 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Memory without Imagery: No Evidence of Visual Working Memory Impairment in People with Aphantasia
Knight, K. F., Milton, F., & Zeman, A. Z. (2022) · eScholarship (California Digital Library) · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Sheehan (1967) · doi:10.1002/1097-4679(196707)23:3
Flagged first, then by citations
2 of the 50 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Aphantasia and hyperphantasia: exploring imagery vividness extremes
Zeman, A. (2024) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2024.02.007 · Cited by 148 · see citing works
Insights into embodied cognition and mental imagery from aphantasia
Muraki, E. J., Speed, L. J., & Pexman, P. M. (2023) · Nature Reviews Psychology · doi:10.1038/s44159-023-00221-9 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Multisensory subtypes of aphantasia: Mental imagery as supramodal perception in reverse
Dawes, A. J., Keogh, R., & Pearson, J. (2023) · Neuroscience Research · doi:10.1016/j.neures.2023.11.009 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Decoding sound content in the early visual cortex of aphantasic participants
de la Cruz, B. M. M., Abbatecola, C., Luciani, R. S., Paton, A., Bergmann, J., Vetter, P., Petro, L. S., & Muckli, L. F. (2024) · Current Biology · doi:10.1016/j.cub.2024.09.008 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Deep Aphantasia: a visual brain with minimal influence from priors or inhibitory feedback?
Bouyer, L. N., & Arnold, D. H. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1374349 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Suggate, S. P. (2024) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/s13428-024-02496-z · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Delem, M., Turkben, S., Cavalli, E., Cousineau, D., & Plancher, G. (2025) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2025.109279 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Kvamme, T. L., Monzel, M., Nagai, Y., & Silvanto, J. (2026) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2026.109368 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
A Systematic Review of Aphantasia: Concept, Measurement, Neural Basis, and Theory Development
Jin, F., Hsu, S., & Li, Y. (2024) · Vision · doi:10.3390/vision8030056 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Arnold, D. H., Hutchinson, M., Bouyer, L. N., Schwarzkopf, D. S., Pellicano, E., & Saurels, B. W. (2024) · Cortex · doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2024.10.020 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Qu, Y., & Baek, E. (2024) · Fashion and Textiles · doi:10.1186/s40691-024-00371-1 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Motor imagery in individuals with congenital aphantasia
Kwaśniak, R., Zapała, D., Augustynowicz, P., & Szubielska, M. (2025) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-025-20168-6 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Individual differences in mental imagery do not moderate the animacy advantage in memory
Serra, M. J., Keiner, J. N., Villalobos, N. C., Kortenhoeven, A., & Scolari, M. (2025) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1016/j.jml.2025.104638 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Mental rotation is a weak measure of people’s propensity to visualise
Arnold, D. H., Bouyer, L. N., Saurels, B. W., Pellicano, E., & Schwarzkopf, D. S. (2025) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2025.103907 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Aphantasia, hyperphantasia and sensory imagery in a multi-cultural sample
Bruder, J., & Zehra, M. (2025) · Journal of Cultural Cognitive Science · doi:10.1007/s41809-025-00184-8 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
What is the Relation between Chemosensory Perception and Chemosensory Mental Imagery?
Spence, C. J. (2024) · Multisensory Research · doi:10.1163/22134808-bja10130 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Keogh, R., Kay, L., Meagher, C. E., & Pearson, J. (2025) · Journal of Vision · doi:10.1167/jov.25.14.10 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Metacognitive Awareness and the Subjective Experience of Remembering in AphantasiaPreprint
Siena, M. J., & Simons, J. S. (2023) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/gx4yw · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Argueta, P., Dominguez, J., Zachman, J., Worthington, P., & Kana, R. K. (2024) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2024.103790 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Kathofer, M., Lamm, C., Leder, H., & Crone, J. S. (2025) · iScience · doi:10.1016/j.isci.2025.112588 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Vanbuckhave, C., Huson, N., Lœvenbruck, H., Guyader, N., & Chauvin, A. (2026) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2026.109378 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
New, B., Barra, J., Chauvin, A., Huson, N., & Lœvenbruck, H. (2026) · Cortex · doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2026.04.019 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Sabel, I., Kay, L., Pearson, J., & Grisham, J. R. (2026) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.1177/00332941261425581
What is aphantasia? A conceptual articulation and empirical evaluation
Lorenzatti, J. J. (2026) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2026.109431 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Arnold, D., Bouyer, L. N., Saurels, B. W., Schwarzkopf, D., & Pellicano, E. (2026) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2026.104085 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Arnold, D. H., Bouyer, L. N., Saurels, B. W., & Schwarzkopf, D. S. (2026) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2026.104120 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
A Systematic Review of Aphantasia: Concept, Measurement, Neural Basis, and Theory DevelopmentPreprint
Jin, F., Hsu, S., & Li, Y. (2024) · Preprints.org · doi:10.20944/preprints202407.0680.v1 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Mental Rotation is a weak measure of the propensity to visualisePreprint
Arnold, D. H., Bouyer, L. N., Saurels, B. W., Pellicano, E., & Schwarzkopf, D. S. (2024) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2024.10.29.620977
Assessing visual mental imagery abilities in cerebral visual impairment
Manley, C. E., Ravenscroft, J., & Merabet, L. B. (2025) · Perception · doi:10.1177/03010066251333744
Impact of imagery deficit on word-based object colour retrieval: Evidence from congenital aphantasia
Cui, Z., Luo, X., Liu, Y., Zhu, M., Dai, Z., Zhang, X., & Han, Z. (2025) · Cognitive Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/02643294.2025.2536855
Achromaphantasia: The Visual Imagery Feature Inventory Reveals a Subgroup with Colourless ImageryPreprint
Kay, L., & Pearson, J. (2025) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.5397920
Exploring the Experience of Living with Aphantasia: Life Without Visual ImageryPreprint
Brisola, E. B. V. (2025) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.5397922
Hayes, S. J., Miles, G. E., & Evans, S.-A. (2025) · New Ideas in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.newideapsych.2025.101215
Arnold, D. H., Bouyer, L. N., Saurels, B. W., & Schwarzkopf, D. S. (2025) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.64898/2025.12.12.694050
Aphantasia is (still) a mental imagery condition
Chen, S., & Lai, C. (2026) · Asian Journal of Philosophy · doi:10.1007/s44204-025-00363-y
Takahashi, J., Omura, K., & Sugimura, S. (2026) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2026.109433 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Self-citationAphantasia as a challenge for Humean abstraction
Tooming, U., & Jakapi, R. (2026) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2026.109465 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Rethinking modality-specificity in mental imagery
Calzavarini, F. (2026) · Synthese · doi:10.1007/s11229-026-05561-6
Stöfsel, M. M., van Zandvoort, M. J. E., & van der Ham, I. J. M. (2026) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-032-36716-7_4
Matsuo, K., & Miura, H. (2026) · Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology · doi:10.1007/s11896-026-09862-x
- Authors
- Takahashi, J., Saito, G., Omura, K., Yasunaga, D., Sugimura, S., Sakamoto, S., Horikawa, T., & Gyoba, J.
- Affiliations
- Fukushima University (JP)
- Tohoku University (JP)
- Yamagata University (JP)
- Kanazawa University (JP)
- Hiroshima University (JP)
- NTT (Japan) (JP)
- Shokei Gakuin University (JP)
- Corresponding author
- Takahashi, Junichi
- ORCID
- Venue
- Frontiers in Psychology
- Publisher
- Frontiers Media SA
- Published
- 2023-07-18
- Volume
- 14
- Pages
- 1174873-1174873
- ISSN
- 1664-1078 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC10403065
- OpenAlex
- W4384692359
- Cited by
- 41
- References
- 50
- Citations by year
- 2026: 13 · 2025: 13 · 2024: 12 · 2023: 3
- FWCI
- 6.14
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Frontiers in Psychology (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Funders
- Casio Science Promotion Foundation
- Fukushima University
- Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (23K25164)
- Research Institute of Electrical Communication, Tohoku University
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Visual perception and processing mechanisms
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Hallucinations in medical conditions
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Keywords
- aphantasia, visual imagery, Vividness of Visual Imagery Questionnaire, self-identification, face recognition (cognition), multisensory imagery, cognitive style
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
