Barriers to adopting therapeutic virtual reality: the perspective of clinical psychologists and psychotherapists
Open accessAbstract
Background and objective Despite evidence supporting the effectiveness of Virtual Reality (VR) for mental disorders, VR adoption in therapy remains low. As VR-technology continues to advance, it is crucial to examine individual and contextual barriers preventing implementation of therapeutic VR. Methods An online survey with closed and open-ended questions regarding knowledge of VR, VR-usage and barriers to VR adoption was conducted among clinical psychologists and psychotherapists in Austria (Mage=51.71 years, 76% women). Results Of 694 participants, only 10 reported using therapeutic VR. Chi-square tests revealed significant differences regarding interest in therapeutic VR based on prior experience, employment status, professional training, and therapeutic cluster. Besides a small age effect, no effects of gender or professional experience were found. Participants interested in VR (interest group, IG) frequently cited barriers and other reasons (see thematic analysis) for not having used VR yet. Those not interested in VR (no interest group, NIG) indicated a lack of relevance, no perceived advantage, or disinterest as reasons for not using VR. Thematic analysis identified four themes shared by both IG and NIG, each encompassing group-specific sub-themes: professional barriers (lack of knowledge, training, time, personal reasons), financial barriers (costs, cost-benefit-ratio), therapeutic barriers (clinical applicability, concerns about “real” therapeutic relationship), and technological barriers (immature technology, cybersickness, no equipment). Conclusions Significant barriers to the adoption of therapeutic VR among clinical psychologists and psychotherapists are gaps in knowledge and training, financial constraints, and lack of motivation, all of which highlight the need for training and financial support to enhance VR implementation.
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Therapists' prior VR knowledge strongly affects acceptance and data validity.
“Finally, acknowledging that therapists’ prior VR knowledge strongly affects acceptance and data validity [28], this study restricted VRET to panic disorder and social anxiety scenarios and included an introductory video to ensure informed feedback.”
From Exploring Predictors of Counselors’ Acceptance of Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy With Resistance and Job Contexts as Moderators: Cross-Sectional Mixed Methods Study (2025) · cites this paper as [28]
The Discussion section on group differences (page unavailable) reports that Austrian mental health professionals with prior VR experience were more interested in using it clinically. The paper also describes knowledge gaps as barriers to adoption, but it does not establish that prior VR knowledge strongly affects acceptance or that it affects data validity; its Strengths and limitations section identifies other limitations of the survey. (LLM, conf=0.85)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredPrevious studies have found a direct effect of psychotherapists' age on VR acceptance, albeit minimally.
“Although the direct effect of psychotherapists’ age on VR acceptance has been found in previous studies, albeit minimally [28], this study analyzed the differences between each age group as a moderating effect for the first time.”
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- Authors
- Felnhofer, A., Pfannerstill, F., Gänsler, L., Kothgassner, O. D., Humer, E., Büttner, J., & Probst, T.
- Affiliations
- Medical University of Vienna (AT)
- University of Salzburg (AT)
- University of Vienna (AT)
- Sigmund Freud Privatuniversität Wien (AT)
- Corresponding author
- Probst, Thomas
- Venue
- Frontiers in Psychiatry
- Publisher
- Frontiers Media SA
- Published
- 2025-03-18
- Volume
- 16
- Pages
- 1549090-1549090
- ISSN
- 1664-0640 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC11958971
- OpenAlex
- W4408580351
- Cited by
- 35
- References
- 59
- Citations by year
- 2026: 23 · 2025: 12
- FWCI
- 29.05
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Frontiers in Psychiatry (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Human-Computer Interaction › Virtual Reality Applications and Impacts
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Digital Mental Health Interventions
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychotherapy Techniques and Applications
- Keywords
- technology adoption barriers, clinical psychologists, psychotherapists, mental illness, professional training needs, financial barriers, cybersickness, therapeutic relationship
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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