Spirulina and its residual biomass as alternative sustainable ingredients: impact on the rheological and nutritional features of wheat bread manufacture
Open accessAbstract
Introduction: Following consumers’ demand for healthier alternatives, Spirulina biomass has been included as a functional ingredient in different types of food as a sustainable alternative to improve physicochemical characteristics and nutritional aspects in the diet. This study aimed to explore the use of Spirulina biomass (SB) and residual biomass (RB) obtained after C-phycocyanin (C-PC) extraction in the production of wheat bread (WB). Methods: The dough rheology, texture, color, nutritional aspects, and bioaccessibility of the different manufactured bread samples were accessed to achieve this goal. Results and Discussion: This is the first research to exploit RB. It was possible to replace 3% of wheat flour for SB or RB in bread-making; this substitution did not impact the rheological characteristics of the dough, even though the pH increased with the addition of SB or RB (5.63 and 5.70, respectively). SB and RB addition improved bread volume and enhanced the nutritional profile, increasing the antioxidant capacity (DPPH and FRAP) compared to WB. Heavy metals (Ni, Cd, and Pb) were not found in any of the samples (<0.2 mg/100 g). The in vitro protein digestibility in bread was better than in SB and RB raw materials, which indicates that bread manufacturing may contribute to improving protein digestibility. In addition, SB needs greater appreciation for sustainable food practices worldwide and in Brazilian exploration, requiring management strategies with industry and society working together. Further studies are necessary, focusing on acceptability to understand the viability of these ingredients to target consumers’ preferences.
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Firmness from 0 to 48 h did not present statistical changes.
“Firmness from 0 to 48 h did not present statistical changes.”
From Valorization of Microalgae as Multifunctional Protein Sources in Plant-Based Systems: Structural, Functional, and Processing Challenges (2026) · cites this paper as [81]
Table 3 reports higher firmness at 48 h than at 0 h for all three bread formulations, with different significance letters for those time points. Section 3.2 says firmness was similar at 24 h and 48 h—not throughout 0–48 h. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredAt 3%, Spirulina and its recovered biomass after C-PC extraction did not affect dough rheology, even with pH shifts.
“Among other technofunctional properties, no differences were observed in dough rheology for Spirulina and its recovered biomass after C-PC extraction at 3%, even with pH shifts [81],”
From Valorization of Microalgae as Multifunctional Protein Sources in Plant-Based Systems: Structural, Functional, and Processing Challenges (2026) · cites this paper as [81]
Section 3.1 reports that adding 3% Spirulina biomass or residual biomass did not change the measured viscoelastic behavior of unleavened dough, although dough pH increased. But the same section reports higher dough stability with Spirulina biomass and changes in later pasting-curve values with both additions. Thus, the blanket claim of no differences in dough rheology overstates the findings; page numbers were not supplied in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.87)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredSpecific volume increased with both Spirulina and RB samples, but no statistically significant differences were observed in crumb moisture, bake loss, or water activity of the breads.
“The specific volume (cm 3 /g) increased with both samples, but no statistically significant differences were observed in crumb moisture, bake loss, or water activity of the breads.”
From Valorization of Microalgae as Multifunctional Protein Sources in Plant-Based Systems: Structural, Functional, and Processing Challenges (2026) · cites this paper as [81]
Table 3 shows higher specific volume with both Spirulina biomass (SB) and residual biomass (RB), while crumb moisture and water activity have the same significance letters across breads. Bake loss has different significance letters for the control and both supplemented breads; Section 3.2 also says SB and RB reduced bake loss. Thus the claim that bake loss showed no statistically significant difference is not supported. (LLM, conf=0.94)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredAt 3%, neither Spirulina nor RB interfered with the rheological parameters of the doughs.
“At 3%, neither Spirulina nor RB interfered with the rheological parameters of the doughs.”
From Valorization of Microalgae as Multifunctional Protein Sources in Plant-Based Systems: Structural, Functional, and Processing Challenges (2026) · cites this paper as [81]
Section 3.1 says the mechanical spectra suggest that 3% SB or RB did not interfere with the rheological parameters of unleavened dough. But the same section reports higher water absorption for RB, higher dough stability for SB, and changes in later torque measurements. The unqualified claim therefore extends beyond the parameters that remained unchanged. (LLM, conf=0.87)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredProtein digestibility was constant at approximately 80% in all samples.
“Protein digestibility, constant at approximately 80%, was achieved in all the samples.”
From Valorization of Microalgae as Multifunctional Protein Sources in Plant-Based Systems: Structural, Functional, and Processing Challenges (2026) · cites this paper as [81]
Section 3.5 reports similar protein digestibility averaging 81% across all three wheat-bread samples. The claim does not limit “all the samples” to bread: the same section reports an average of 56% for the two raw-material samples, so the 80% figure does not apply to every sample tested. No page number is available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
DPPH and FRAP antioxidant activity were statistically superior in Spirulina and RB samples compared to control.
“1 DPPH (µM 2 TE/g) of 36.32 ± 0.04 for Spirulina samples and of 34.91 ± 0.09 for RB was statistically superior (p < 0.05) to the control (3.28 ± 0.01).The same trend (p < 0.05) was observed in 3 FRAP (µM TE/g) (7.49 ± 0.10; 7.38 ± 0.19; 2.06 ± 0.02, respectively).”
From Valorization of Microalgae as Multifunctional Protein Sources in Plant-Based Systems: Structural, Functional, and Processing Challenges (2026) · cites this paper as [81]
Section 3.3 reports higher FRAP results for bread containing Spirulina biomass or residual biomass and says control bread had the lowest FRAP and DPPH values. It does not establish that both supplemented breads had statistically higher DPPH values than the control, and the cited DPPH and FRAP figures were not found in the passages retrieved from our copy. (LLM, conf=0.82)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe combination of pulses and Spirulina may offer complementary mechanisms by broadening the spectrum of bioactive compounds and enhancing protection against oxidative stress and inflammation, by scavenging reactive oxygen species and chelating pro-oxidant metals.
“Their combination may offer complementary mechanisms by broadening the spectrum of bioactive compounds and enhancing protection against oxidative stress and inflammation, by scavenging reactive oxygen species and chelating pro-oxidant metals [81].”
From Valorization of Microalgae as Multifunctional Protein Sources in Plant-Based Systems: Structural, Functional, and Processing Challenges (2026) · cites this paper as [81]
Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 1 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 1 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredSpirulina whole biomass and its fraction did not affect the degree of softening or development time of doughs; dough stability was higher in SB samples, resulting in a positive effect on the physical profile of breads.
“Spirulina whole biomass and its fraction did not affect the degree of softening (mN/m) of the doughs nor the development time (min).The dough stability (min) was higher in SB samples, which resulted in a positive effect on the physical profile of the breads.”
From Valorization of Microalgae as Multifunctional Protein Sources in Plant-Based Systems: Structural, Functional, and Processing Challenges (2026) · cites this paper as [81]
The pH increased to 5.63 ± 0.05 in Spirulina, 5.70 ± 0.05 in RB, and 5.42 ± 0.05 in control.
“The pH increased (5.63 ± 0.05 in Spirulina; 5.70 ± 0.05 in RB and 5.42 ± 0.05 in control).”
From Valorization of Microalgae as Multifunctional Protein Sources in Plant-Based Systems: Structural, Functional, and Processing Challenges (2026) · cites this paper as [81]
Cohesiveness of samples containing Spirulina reduced after 48 h.
“Cohesiveness of the samples containing Spirulina reduced after 48 h.”
From Valorization of Microalgae as Multifunctional Protein Sources in Plant-Based Systems: Structural, Functional, and Processing Challenges (2026) · cites this paper as [81]
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Self-citation
- Authors
- Fratelli, C., Nunes, M. C., De Rosso, V. V., Raymundo, A., & Braga, A. R. C.
- Affiliations
- Universidade Metropolitana de Santos (BR)
- University of Lisbon (PT)
- Universidade Federal de São Paulo (BR)
- Corresponding author
- Braga, Anna Rafaela Cavalcante
- Venue
- Frontiers in Food Science and Technology
- Publisher
- Frontiers Media SA
- Published
- 2023-10-16
- Volume
- 3
- ISSN
- 2674-1121 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W4387667248
- Cited by
- 23
- References
- 65
- Citations by year
- 2026: 12 · 2025: 3 · 2024: 8
- FWCI
- 4.04
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Frontiers in Food Science and Technology (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Funders
- Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (23/00857-0, 88887, 20/06732-7)
- Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (88887)
- Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia (04129)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Food composition and properties
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Food Science › Seed and Plant Biochemistry
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Food Science › Food and Agricultural Sciences
- Keywords
- Spirulina biomass, biomass residues, wheat bread, dough rheology, antioxidant capacity, in vitro protein digestibility, heavy metal contamination, flour substitution, sustainable food ingredients, bioaccessibility
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