Microalgae as Functional Ingredients in Savory Food Products: Application to Wheat Crackers
Open accessAbstract
Crackers are widely consumed snack foods and there is an increasing trend in adding functional ingredients to their composition. In the present work, the dried biomasses of four microalgae strains—Arthrospira platensis F&M-C256, Chlorella vulgaris Allma, Tetraselmis suecica F&M-M33, and Phaeodactylum tricornutum F&M-M40—were used as a source of proteins, antioxidants, and other bioactive molecules in artisanal wheat crackers. Two incorporation levels were tested: 2% (w/w) and 6% (w/w). The impact of microalgae addition was evaluated in terms of physical properties, biochemical composition, antioxidant activity, in vitro digestibility, and sensory characteristics. Microalgae crackers presented stable color and texture throughout eight weeks of storage. Microalgae crackers were slightly thinner and lighter than the control but presented a similar density in agreement with scanning electron microscope images, indicating that gas retention was not greatly affected by microalgae addition. Regarding biochemical composition, 6% A. platensis and C. vulgaris crackers presented a significantly higher protein content (13.2–13.5%), for which they could be claimed to be a “source of protein” according to the Regulation (EC) No. 1924/2006. A. platensis crackers showed the highest antioxidant activity and attained better sensory analysis scores. T. suecica and P. tricornutum crackers showed high phenolic content and antioxidant activity but attained low sensory scores mainly because of their unattractive fishy off-flavor.
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Adding certain percentages of spirulina (0%, 5%, 10%, and 15%) to the foods that schoolchildren eat for snacks improved the nutritional content of biscuits and increased fatty acids, such as omega-3, omega-6, omega-7, and omega-9, with omega-6 containing the highest percentage of unsaturated fatty acids, specifically linolenic and γ-linolenic acid, with values of 33.0 and 30.0 mg/g, respectively.
“On the other hand, research carried out by El Nakib et al. [34] demonstrated that the nutritional content of biscuits might be improved by adding certain percentages of spirulina to the foods that schoolchildren eat for snacks. The percentages tested were 0%, 5%, 10%, and 15%. It also revealed an increase in fatty acids, such as omega-3, omega-6, omega-7, and omega-9, with omega-6 containing the”
From Trends and Technological Advancements in the Possible Food Applications of Spirulina and Their Health Benefits: A Review. (2022) · cites this paper as [83]
Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 1 partially supported, 1 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.
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Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredDigestible protein in treated biscuit samples was 11.9 g/100 g, greater than the control sample with 9.8% protein and 7.3 g/100 g digestible protein.
“The quantity of protein that could be digested in the treated samples was 11.9 g/100 g of biscuits. This proportion is much greater than the one found in the control sample, which had a protein content of 9.8% and a digestible protein content of 7.3 g/100 g of biscuits.”
From Trends and Technological Advancements in the Possible Food Applications of Spirulina and Their Health Benefits: A Review. (2022) · cites this paper as [83]
Section 3.7 reports 11.9 g digestible protein per 100 g cracker for the specific 6% A. platensis sample, compared with 7.3 g for the control. Section 3.5 gives the control’s protein content as 9.8%. The claim’s reference to treated samples generally is broader than the result reported for that one formulation. (LLM, conf=0.87)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe biscuit loaded with the spirulina alga A. platensis had the strongest antioxidant activity and received the highest score in the sensory evaluation.
“As a result, these additions are regarded as a source of protein, since the biscuit that was loaded with the spirulina alga A. platensis had the strongest antioxidant activity and received the highest score in the sensory evaluation [83].”
From Trends and Technological Advancements in the Possible Food Applications of Spirulina and Their Health Benefits: A Review. (2022) · cites this paper as [83]
Section 3.6 reports that the 6% A. platensis crackers had the highest antioxidant capacity. Section 3.8 says the 2% A. platensis crackers were preferred among the microalgae crackers for taste, smell, and overall appreciation, but the control scored higher than all microalgae crackers. The claim overstates the sensory result and combines findings from different formulations. (LLM, conf=0.90)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe addition of spirulina by 2% did not give any significant differences in total phenols in biscuits compared to the control sample, as the amount of phenols was 1.4 mg gallic acid/g, while the content of phenolics increased significantly to 1.6-1.7 mg gallic acid/g when spirulina was increased to 6%.
“In addition, Batista et al. [83] revealed that when estimating the amount of total phenols in biscuits enriched with spirulina algae, the addition of spirulina by 2% did not give any significant differences compared to the control sample, as the amount of phenols was 1.4 mg gallic acid/g, while the content of phenolics increased significantly to 1.6–1.7 mg gallic acid/g when spirulina was increa”
From Trends and Technological Advancements in the Possible Food Applications of Spirulina and Their Health Benefits: A Review. (2022) · cites this paper as [83]
Split into 2 atoms — 1 confirmed, 1 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredNumerous minerals (potassium phosphate, potassium sulfate, sodium compounds, phosphorous, calcium, magnesium, iron, EDTA) are required for Spirulina growth and must be present in culture medium.
“Numerous minerals, including potassium phosphate, potassium sulfate, sodium (sodium carbonate, sodium bicarbonate, sodium nitrate, and sodium chloride), phosphorous (potassium phosphate), calcium (calcium chloride), magnesium (hydrated magnesium sulfate), iron (ferrous sulfate hydrate), and EDTA, are required for the growth of spirulina and must be present in the culture medium [44].”
From Tendencies Affecting the Growth and Cultivation of Genus Spirulina: An Investigative Review on Current Trends (2022) · cites this paper as [44]
Section 2.1 (page unavailable) says the spirulina strain was cultivated in Zarrouk medium and washed to remove excess bicarbonate. It does not list the claimed minerals or say that each is required for growth and must be present in the medium. (LLM, conf=0.78)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
The medium for Spirulina must contain carbon for photosynthesis, and because Spirulina contains 47% carbon, the medium has high sodium bicarbonate (10.8 g/L) and sodium carbonate (7.6 g/L).
“In order to carry out photosynthesis, the medium in which the algae is grown must have carbon. Because spirulina contains 47% of the carbon that is required for its growth, the medium in which it is grown has a very high concentration of sodium bicarbonate (10.8 g/L) and sodium carbonate (7.6 g/L) [44].”
From Tendencies Affecting the Growth and Cultivation of Genus Spirulina: An Investigative Review on Current Trends (2022) · cites this paper as [44]
Section 2.1 (page unavailable) says the Spirulina strain was grown in Zarrouk medium and that its biomass was washed to remove excess bicarbonate. It does not state that Spirulina contains 47% carbon, give the claimed sodium bicarbonate or sodium carbonate concentrations, or explain those concentrations as a requirement for photosynthesis. Searches for the figures and for carbon in the growth medium found no supporting passage. (LLM, conf=0.82)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredSpirulina biomass has significant iron (0.58-1.8 g/kg) despite modest iron in medium (2 mg/L).
“Despite the fact that the spirulina medium has modest concentrations of iron (2 mg/L), it has a rather significant quantity of iron (0.58–1.8 g/kg) in its biomass [44].”
From Tendencies Affecting the Growth and Cultivation of Genus Spirulina: An Investigative Review on Current Trends (2022) · cites this paper as [44]
The Introduction describes Arthrospira platensis (spirulina) as particularly rich in iron, and Methods §2.1 says it was grown in Zarrouk medium. Our copy does not give the claimed iron concentrations of 0.58–1.8 g/kg in biomass or 2 mg/L in the medium, so the quantitative comparison is unsupported. (LLM, conf=0.87)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredAdding A. platensis as a high protein food source boosted protein availability in biscuit samples.
“Batista et al. [83] were able to boost the protein availability in the biscuit samples by adding A. platensis as a high protein food source.”
From Trends and Technological Advancements in the Possible Food Applications of Spirulina and Their Health Benefits: A Review. (2022) · cites this paper as [83]
The incorporation of 6% each of spirulina and Chlorella resulted in significantly increased protein content (13.2-13.5%).
“The incorporation of 6% each of spirulina and Chlorella resulted in significantly increased protein content (13.2–13.5%) [83].”
From Trends and Technological Advancements in the Possible Food Applications of Spirulina and Their Health Benefits: A Review. (2022) · cites this paper as [83]
At 30 °C, using urea as a nitrogen source in spirulina made its absorption easier, increased biomass, but had no effect on chlorophyll content.
“At a temperature of 30 °C, it was observed that using urea as a source of nitrogen in spirulina made its absorption by the spirulina easier, which resulted in an increase in biomass, but had no effect on the chlorophyll content [14,44].”
From Tendencies Affecting the Growth and Cultivation of Genus Spirulina: An Investigative Review on Current Trends (2022) · cites this paper as [44]
The Materials and Methods section (2.1; page not supplied) says that spirulina was cultivated in Zarrouk medium, but does not discuss urea as a nitrogen source. Searches for urea, 30 °C, biomass growth, and chlorophyll found no passage addressing the claimed effects; the paper instead studies microalgae as ingredients in wheat crackers. (LLM, conf=0.76)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredAt pH 8.0-8.3, biomass of Spirulina grown in saltwater with urea was 7.35 g dry weight/m2/day, lower than biomass in seawater with sodium bicarbonate, which was 8.14 g/m2/day.
“At a pH range of 8.0–8.3, the biomass of Spirulina spp. that was grown in saltwater with urea was 7.35 g (dry weight)/m2/day. This was a lower value than the biomass of Spirulina spp. that was grown in seawater with sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3), which was 8.14 g/m2/day [14,44].”
From Tendencies Affecting the Growth and Cultivation of Genus Spirulina: An Investigative Review on Current Trends (2022) · cites this paper as [44]
Section 2.1 describes the origin and cultivation media of the microalgae used in wheat crackers, but gives no Spirulina productivity comparison. Searches for the reported yields, pH range, urea, and seawater with sodium bicarbonate found no passage addressing the claim. (LLM, conf=0.78)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredA nitrogen content of 2.5 g/L was ideal for the medium, and urea was a superior nitrogen source to ammonium or nitrate as a fertilizer ingredient.
“It was found that the nitrogen content of 2.5 g/L was ideal for the medium, and that urea was a superior source of nitrogen to either ammonium or nitrate as a fertilizer ingredient.”
From Tendencies Affecting the Growth and Cultivation of Genus Spirulina: An Investigative Review on Current Trends (2022) · cites this paper as [44]
The Materials and Methods section (2.1) names the media used to cultivate the microalgae but gives no ideal nitrogen concentration or comparison of urea, ammonium, and nitrate. The Results passages concern cracker composition and digestibility. Searches for “2.5 g/L” and the three nitrogen sources found no passage supporting the claim. (LLM, conf=0.75)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIncreasing phosphate concentration to 250 mg/L in the form of potassium phosphate K2HPO4 boosted biomass production.
“increasing the phosphate concentration to 250 mg/L in the form of potassium phosphate K2HPO4 boosted the production of biomass [44].”
From Tendencies Affecting the Growth and Cultivation of Genus Spirulina: An Investigative Review on Current Trends (2022) · cites this paper as [44]
Section 2.1 (page unavailable) describes the cultivation media used to produce the microalgae biomass, but does not report a phosphate increase or its effect on production. Searches for 250 mg/L, K2HPO4, and potassium phosphate found no passage addressing the claimed result. (LLM, conf=0.75)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredAfter 21 days of batch cultivation, higher dry weights were reported for 20% regular Zarrouk medium (1.21 g/L) compared to 0.84 g/L for Zarrouk-modified medium.
“After 21 days of batch cultivation (1.21 g/L), higher dry weights were reported for 20% of the regular Zarrouk medium compared to 0.84 g/L for the Zarrouk-modified medium.”
From Tendencies Affecting the Growth and Cultivation of Genus Spirulina: An Investigative Review on Current Trends (2022) · cites this paper as [44]
Section 2.1 (page unavailable) says that A. platensis was grown in Zarrouk medium, but describes cultivation in semi-batch mode. Searches for the 21-day batch comparison and the 1.21 and 0.84 g/L dry weights found no passage reporting those results or comparing regular and modified Zarrouk media. (LLM, conf=0.76)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredWater quality characteristics affect mass production of algae, solubility of added nutrients, and accumulation of heavy metals by algae.
“The characteristics of the water quality contributed to the mass production of algae and had a double effect by affecting the solubility of added nutrients in the agricultural media and the accumulation of some heavy metals by the algae while they were in the growth stage. In addition, the water quality characteristics had an effect on the mass production of algae [44,45,46].”
From Tendencies Affecting the Growth and Cultivation of Genus Spirulina: An Investigative Review on Current Trends (2022) · cites this paper as [44]
Section 2.1 (page unavailable) identifies the media used to cultivate the algae, but does not discuss how water quality affects biomass production, nutrient solubility, or heavy-metal accumulation. Searches for those relationships found no passage addressing them; the paper’s discussion of water content concerns the finished crackers. (LLM, conf=0.75)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredDue to high nutrient and salt requirements, Spirulina can only be naturally cultivated in salt lakes.
“Due to the high nutrient and salt requirements of spirulina, it can only be naturally cultivated in salt lakes [44,45,46].”
From Tendencies Affecting the Growth and Cultivation of Genus Spirulina: An Investigative Review on Current Trends (2022) · cites this paper as [44]
The Introduction identifies Arthrospira platensis as spirulina, and Materials and Methods §2.1 describes cultivating the study strain in Zarrouk medium in photobioreactors. Neither passage addresses its natural habitat or says that nutrient and salt requirements restrict natural cultivation to salt lakes; searches for salt lakes and natural habitat found no such passage. (LLM, conf=0.74)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredSpirulina can be cultivated in salinities ranging from 10 to 40 psi without substantial changes in biomass dry weight, chemical composition, or fatty acid levels.
“Spirulina has the ability to grow and adapt in environments with high salt, and it can be cultivated in salinities ranging from 10 to 40 psi without experiencing substantial changes in its biomass dry weight, chemical composition, or fatty acid levels [44,45,53].”
From Tendencies Affecting the Growth and Cultivation of Genus Spirulina: An Investigative Review on Current Trends (2022) · cites this paper as [44]
The Materials and Methods section (§2.1; page unavailable) says spirulina was cultivated in Zarrouk medium, but gives no salinity range or comparison across salinities. Searches for the 10–40 range and for salt tolerance found no passage assessing changes in biomass dry weight, chemical composition, or fatty acid levels. (LLM, conf=0.75)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredCookies made with 2% (w/w) Arthrospira achieve positive results regarding flavor.
“Batista et al. [142] reported that cookies made with 2% (w/w) Arthrospira achieved positive results regarding their flavor.”
From Challenges in Functional Food Products with the Incorporation of Some Microalgae (2024) · cites this paper as [142]
The growth rate was 0.78 g/L dry weight and increased to 0.82 g/L after 40 h of cultivation after sodium bicarbonate was added.
“It was determined to be 0.78 g/L (based on dry weight), and after 40 h of cultivation, the growth rate increased to 0.82 g/L after sodium bicarbonate was added.”
From Tendencies Affecting the Growth and Cultivation of Genus Spirulina: An Investigative Review on Current Trends (2022) · cites this paper as [44]
Growth variables such as light intensity, temperature, pH, and salinity can have a major influence on lipid and pigment content in spirulina cells, determining the nutrient composition of spirulina biomass.
“Growth variables such as light intensity, temperature, pH, and salinity can have a major influence on the lipid and pigment content in cells of spirulina, which determines the composition of nutrients in spirulina biomass and is dependent on these growing parameters [1,44].”
From Tendencies Affecting the Growth and Cultivation of Genus Spirulina: An Investigative Review on Current Trends (2022) · cites this paper as [44]
Spirulina does not grow below 17 °C, does not perish above 38 °C, optimal growth at 35 °C, and temperatures >38 °C prevent or disrupt growth.
“Spirulina does not grow below 17 °C, but it does not perish above 38 °C. The optimal temperature for growth is 35 °C, but temperatures that are higher than 38 °C either prevent or disrupt its growth [1,44].”
From Tendencies Affecting the Growth and Cultivation of Genus Spirulina: An Investigative Review on Current Trends (2022) · cites this paper as [44]
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- Authors
- Batista, A. P., Niccolai, A., Bursic, I., Sousa, I., Raymundo, A., Rodolfi, L., Biondi, N., & Tredici, M. R.
- Affiliations
- University of Lisbon (PT)
- University of Florence (IT)
- LEAF—Linking Landscape, Environment, Agriculture and Food, Instituto Superior de Agronomia, Universidade de Lisboa, Tapada da Ajuda, 1349-017 Lisboa, Portugal
- Corresponding author
- Niccolai, Alberto
- ORCID
- Venue
- Foods
- Publisher
- MDPI AG
- Published
- 2019-11-23
- Volume
- 8
- Issue
- 12
- Pages
- 611
- ISSN
- 2304-8158 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC6963871
- OpenAlex
- W2989853209
- Cited by
- 203
- References
- 60
- Citations by year
- 2026: 23 · 2025: 37 · 2024: 48 · 2023: 38 · 2022: 22 · 2021: 19 · 2020: 16
- FWCI
- 12.70
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- dx.doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Foods (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Florence Research (University of Florence) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Portuguese National Funding Agency for Science, Research and Technology (RCAAP Project by FCT) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Funders
- Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia (UID/AGR/04129/2013)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Aquatic Science › Seaweed-derived Bioactive Compounds
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Food Science › Food and Agricultural Sciences
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Food Science › Seed and Plant Biochemistry
- Keywords
- microalgae, functional food ingredients, Spirulina platensis, Chlorella vulgaris, Tetraselmis suecica, Phaeodactylum tricornutum, protein content, antioxidant activity, phenolic compounds, in vitro digestibility, sensory evaluation, off-flavor, storage stability
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