Tiny Machine Learning Battery State-of-Charge Estimation Hardware Accelerated
Open accessAbstract
Electric mobility is pervasive and strongly affects everyone in everyday life. Motorbikes, bikes, cars, humanoid robots, etc., feature specific battery architectures composed of several lithium nickel oxide cells. Some of them are connected in series and others in parallel within custom architectures. They need to be controlled against over current, temperature, inner pressure and voltage, and their charge/discharge needs to be continuously monitored and balanced among the cells. Such a battery management system exhibits embarrassingly parallel computing, as hundreds of cells offer the opportunity for scalable and decentralized monitoring and control. In recent years, tiny machine learning has emerged as a data-driven black-box approach to address application problems at the edge by using very limited energy, computational and storage resources to achieve under mW power consumption. Examples of tiny devices at the edge include microcontrollers capable of 10–100 s MHz with 100 s KiB to few MB embedded memory. This study addressed battery management systems with a particular focus on state-of-charge prediction. Several machine learning workloads were studied by using IEEE open-source datasets to profile their accuracy. Moreover, their deployability on a range of microcontrollers was studied, and their memory footprints were reported in a very detailed manner. Finally, computational requirements were proposed with respect to the parallel nature of the battery system architecture, suggesting a per cell and per module tiny, decentralized artificial intelligence system architecture.
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The accelerated parallel TCN achieved the lowest MSE and fastest inference time among tested networks, making it the most efficient solution for SOC estimation in EV batteries.
“The accelerated parallel TCN achieved the lowest MSE and fastest inference time among tested networks, making it the most efficient solution for SOC estimation in EV batteries.”
From Advancements in the estimation of the state of charge of lithium-ion battery: a comprehensive review of traditional and deep learning approaches (2025) · cites this paper as [112]
Pau et al. demonstrated that, although TCNs initially required the most MACCs and had the longest inference time on two microcontroller unit (MCUs) without hardware acceleration, STM32MP257F-EV1 optimization significantly improved the performance.
“For complex TCNs, Pau et al. demonstrated that, although TCNs initially required the most MACCs and had the longest inference time on two microcontroller unit (MCUs) without hardware acceleration, STM32MP257F-EV1 optimization significantly improved the performance[112].”
From Advancements in the estimation of the state of charge of lithium-ion battery: a comprehensive review of traditional and deep learning approaches (2025) · cites this paper as [112]
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- Authors
- Pau, D. P., & Aniballi, A.
- Affiliations
- STMicroelectronics (Italy) (IT)
- Corresponding author
- Pau, Danilo Pietro
- ORCID
- Pau, Danilo Pietro
- Venue
- Applied Sciences
- Publisher
- MDPI AG
- Published
- 2024-07-18
- Volume
- 14
- Issue
- 14
- Pages
- 6240
- ISSN
- 2076-3417 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W4400776280
- Semantic Scholar
- 6393b05ad569cce47611706a0f22b3a6d0f143a9
- Cited by
- 22
- References
- 74
- Citations by year
- 2026: 13 · 2025: 9
- FWCI
- 2.38
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Applied Sciences (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Automotive Engineering › Advanced Battery Technologies Research
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition › Advanced Neural Network Applications
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Computer Networks and Communications › IoT and Edge/Fog Computing
- Keywords
- TinyML, state of charge estimation, battery management systems, microcontroller, hardware acceleration, edge computing, memory usage, decentralized AI, electric mobility, parallel computing
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