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Cited by 38Bacteriophages and microbial interactionsNanoparticle-Based Drug DeliveryRNA Interference and Gene Delivery

Bacteriophages as Targeted Therapeutic Vehicles: Challenges and Opportunities

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Venkataraman, Srividhya, Shahgolzari, Mehdi, Yavari, Afagh, Hefferon, Kathleen·2025·Bioengineering
DOI 10.3390/bioengineering12050469PMC PMC12109052
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Abstract

Bacteriophages, with their distinctive ability to selectively target host bacteria, stand out as a compelling tool in the realm of drug and gene delivery. Their assembly from proteins and nucleic acids, coupled with their modifiable and biologically unique properties, enables them to serve as efficient and safe delivery systems. Unlike conventional nanocarriers, which face limitations such as non-specific targeting, cytotoxicity, and reduced transfection efficiency in vivo, engineered phages exhibit promising potential to overcome these hurdles and improve delivery outcomes. This review highlights the potential of bacteriophage-based systems as innovative and efficient systems for delivering therapeutic agents. It explores strategies for engineering bacteriophage, categorizes the principal types of phages employed for drug and gene delivery, and evaluates their applications in disease therapy. It provides intriguing details of the use of natural and engineered phages in the therapy of diseases such as cancer, bacterial and viral infections, veterinary diseases, and neurological disorders, as well as the use of phage display technology in generating monoclonal antibodies against various human diseases. Additionally, the use of CRISPR-Cas9 technology in generating genetically engineered phages is elucidated. Furthermore, it provides a critical analysis of the challenges and limitations associated with phage-based delivery systems, offering insights for overcoming these obstacles. By showcasing the advancements in phage engineering and their integration into nanotechnology, this study underscores the potential of bacteriophage-based delivery systems to revolutionize therapeutic approaches and inspire future innovations in medicine.

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  • Neutralizing antibodies can develop upon repeated phage exposure, potentially limiting long-term efficacy through enhanced clearance.

    “Neutralizing antibodies can develop upon repeated phage exposure, potentially limiting long-term efficacy through enhanced clearance.”

    From Phage therapy in oncology: opportunities for cancer prevention and treatment (2026) · cites this paper as [141]

    Section 2.2 says the immune system can neutralize phages and diminish therapeutic efficacy; section 4.5 describes the generation of antiphage antibodies, and section 3.6 mentions immune clearance. The cited passages do not establish that repeated exposure produces neutralizing antibodies or that those antibodies enhance clearance and limit long-term efficacy. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.82)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Achieving efficient and targeted delivery of phages to specific sites within the body, such as solid tumors or distinct microbiota compartments, remains a significant challenge.

    “Achieving efficient and targeted delivery of phages to specific sites within the body, such as solid tumors or distinct microbiota compartments, remains a significant challenge [28,141]”

    From Phage therapy in oncology: opportunities for cancer prevention and treatment (2026) · cites this paper as [141]

    The Conclusions identify efficient delivery to target sites as a critical challenge, and §4.5 discusses barriers to targeting tumors. Section 3.6 describes protecting orally delivered phages from stomach acid and improving their retention in the intestine, but our copy does not establish targeted delivery to distinct microbiota compartments as a challenge. (LLM, conf=0.82)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Cytokine responses to phage administration, while potentially beneficial for tumor immunogenicity, could pose safety risks in immunosuppressed patients.

    “Cytokine responses to phage administration, while potentially beneficial for tumor immunogenicity, could pose safety risks in immunosuppressed patients.”

    From Phage therapy in oncology: opportunities for cancer prevention and treatment (2026) · cites this paper as [141]

    Section 4.5 (page unavailable) says phages can trigger cytokine release and that their immune-stimulatory properties may benefit cancer immunotherapy. It does not say that these responses pose safety risks specifically for immunosuppressed patients; its discussion of immunosuppression concerns the tumor microenvironment. (LLM, conf=0.87)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • One significant challenge in clinical application is the complex interplay between administered phages and the human immune system.

    “One significant challenge in clinical application is the complex interplay between administered phages and the human immune system [140–142]”

    From Phage therapy in oncology: opportunities for cancer prevention and treatment (2026) · cites this paper as [141]

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Cited by

Sorted by citations

Authors
Venkataraman, S., Shahgolzari, M., Yavari, A., & Hefferon, K.
Affiliations
  • University of Toronto (CA)
  • Hamedan University of Medical Sciences (IR)
  • Payame Noor University (IR)
Corresponding author
  • Venkataraman, Srividhya
  • Hefferon, Kathleen
ORCID
Venue
Bioengineering
Publisher
MDPI AG
Published
2025-04-29
Volume
12
Issue
5
Pages
469
ISSN
2306-5354 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.3390/bioengineering12050469
PMC
PMC12109052
OpenAlex
W4409922117
Cited by
38
References
4
Citations by year
2026: 28 · 2025: 10
FWCI
4.07
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Bioengineering (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
Topics
  • Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Bacteriophages and microbial interactions
  • Physical Sciences › Materials Science › Biomaterials › Nanoparticle-Based Drug Delivery
  • Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › RNA Interference and Gene Delivery
Keywords
bacteriophages, phage engineering, drug delivery, gene delivery, targeted delivery, phage display, monoclonal antibodies, CRISPR/Cas9, cancer therapy, bacterial infection, viral infection, animal diseases, neurological disorders, nanocarriers

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