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Cited by 1Thermochemical Biomass Conversion ProcessesAdsorption and biosorption for pollutant removalMunicipal Solid Waste Management

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 35 of the 35 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 11 of the 48 sources its claims cite were checked for support.

Integrated Techno-Economic, Environmental Screening, and Social Return on Investment Analysis of Community-Scale Sawdust–Polypropylene Co-Pyrolysis for Heavy-Metal Adsorbent Production in Rural Area, Thailand

Open access
Kreetachat, Torpong, Khaowdang, Suphalerk, Imman, Saksit, Suriyachai, Nopparat, Kreetachat, Nathiya, Suwannahong, Kowit, Hongthong, Sukanya, Wongcharee, Surachai·2026·Energies
DOI 10.3390/en19143330
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Abstract

The co-pyrolysis of waste sawdust and non-recyclable polypropylene at 500 °C was investigated for low-cost adsorbent production and solid waste valorization in rural Thailand. Sustainability was evaluated through techno-economic analysis, gate-to-gate environmental screening, CO2 emission accounting, adsorption cost analysis, and social return on investment assessment. The sawdust–polypropylene biochar produced at 500 °C production system requires a total capital expenditure of 46,000 THB and achieves a unit production cost of 316 THB kg−1 at a 35% w/w biochar yield, 7–14 times lower than commercial granular-activated carbon and powdered-activated carbon. Based on a hypothetical community-scale deployment scenario, the estimated capital expenditure payback period under in-house granular-activated carbon substitution falls below six months. All annual techno-economic and SROI results presented in this study represent scenario-based screening estimates and should not be interpreted as demonstrated community-scale performance. Gate-to-gate environmental screening estimated gross production emissions of 8.771 kg CO2e kg−1 SPB-500. A consequential waste-diversion scenario incorporating carbon sequestration and avoided-disposal credits yielded a hybrid scenario-based net greenhouse-gas balance of +3.082 kg CO2e kg−1 SPB-500, supporting its potential application under the evaluated scenario of approximately 0.4–5.9 kg CO2e kg−1 relative to commercial-activated carbon benchmarks. Social return on investment analysis yields a base–case ratio of 1.39:1 (five-year total present value: 6,025,841 THB; minimum across sensitivity scenarios: 1.13:1), with water quality improvement (SDG 6; 46.1%) and health risk reduction (20.7%) jointly accounting for 66.8% of monetized outcomes, confirming investment justification from public health benefits alone. Quantifiable alignment is demonstrated across five UN Sustainable Development Goals. Collectively, these findings suggest that SPB-500 co-pyrolysis has the potential to be an economically accessible and socially beneficial waste-valorization technology under the evaluated scenario, supporting its potential application in decentralized heavy-metal remediation in resource-constrained communities.

Overview

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This study screens community-scale LPG-fired co-pyrolysis of sawdust and non-recyclable polypropylene at 500 °C to produce SPB-500 heavy-metal adsorbent in rural Thailand, integrating techno-economic, gate-to-gate environmental, CO₂ emission, and social return on investment analyses. It reports a production cost of 316 THB kg⁻¹, a scenario-based net GHG balance of +3.082 kg CO₂e kg⁻¹ SPB-500, and a base-case SROI of 1.39:1, while stressing that all annual results are scenario-based screening estimates.

Key findings

  • Techno-economic analysis: CAPEX was 46,000 THB (1,286 USD), batch OPEX was 110.55 THB (3.09 USD), and unit production cost was 316 THB kg⁻¹ (~8.8 USD kg⁻¹) at 35% w/w biochar yield; under an assumed 1,200 kg yr⁻¹ capacity and 40 USD kg⁻¹ selling price, the simple payback period was ~0.034 year (~0.4 months), with yield sensitivity giving 276–369 THB kg⁻¹.
  • Environmental screening: gross gate-to-gate emissions were +8.771 kg CO₂e kg⁻¹ SPB-500, from LPG combustion (+3.410; 38.9%), drying electricity (+2.471; 28.2%), and post-combustion (+2.890; 32.9%); consequential waste-diversion credits totaled −5.687 kg CO₂e kg⁻¹, giving a hybrid scenario-based net balance of +3.082 kg CO₂e kg⁻¹, with CED ~57.6 MJ kg⁻¹ and 0.047 g CO₂e g⁻¹ Cu²⁺ removed.
  • SROI: base-case ratio was 1.39:1, with five-year total present value of 6,025,841 THB against 4,342,000 THB investment; sensitivity scenarios ranged from 1.13:1 to 1.51:1, and water quality improvement (O1; 46.1%) plus health risk reduction (O2; 20.7%) accounted for 66.8% of monetized outcomes.
  • Adsorption basis: prior experimental work reported SPB-500 maximum Cu²⁺ adsorption capacity of 126.1 mg g⁻¹, rapid equilibrium, favorable Freundlich isotherm behavior, pseudo-second-order kinetics, and good regeneration stability.

Methods

  • The study builds on previously validated SPB-500 adsorption experiments and evaluates a community-scale production scenario using a mixed feedstock of sawdust and non-recyclable post-consumer polypropylene at a 4:1 w/w ratio, with 1 kg total daily feed (800 g sawdust, 200 g PP), LPG-fired slow pyrolysis at 500 °C, and 35% w/w biochar yield.
  • Economic analysis estimated CAPEX, batch OPEX, unit production cost, and simplified payback; environmental screening was gate-to-gate per 1 kg SPB-500, with CO₂ accounting using IPCC and Thailand TGO emission factors and a separate consequential waste-diversion scenario for carbon sequestration and avoided-disposal credits.
  • SROI used a forward-looking evaluative community-scale scenario in rural Chaiyaphum Province (1,200 kg SPB yr⁻¹; 10 m³ month⁻¹; 50 households), a 5% annual discount over five years, nine monetized outcomes (O1–O9), financial proxies, and deadweight/attribution/drop-off adjustments, plus sensitivity analysis.

Limitations

  • The paper states that annual techno-economic and SROI results are scenario-based screening estimates, not demonstrated community-scale performance; the 1,200 kg yr⁻¹ production capacity is tentative and not proven, engineering parameters were outside scope, and pilot-scale validation is required.
  • The paper states that the environmental assessment is gate-to-gate, excludes end-of-life and upstream stages, and that carbon-retention credits assume safe end-of-life management without modeling a specific pathway; SROI relies on literature-based proxies and assumptions rather than stakeholder or social impact data, and no multi-factorial uncertainty analysis was undertaken.
  • Evident from the text: the reactor was a laboratory-scale prototype, comparisons with commercial GAC/PAC are not evidence of functional substitutability, alternative heating fuels were not evaluated, and FEP/HTP comparisons are qualitative literature benchmarks rather than quantified midpoint LCIA results.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.3390/en19143330

Cites

35 of 35 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Verification

Claims the paper makes

11 of 48 cited sources checked · 2 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured

  • Premisecitation

    The majority of published TEA studies address large-scale centralized facilities that require substantial capital investment and well-developed feedstock logistics conditions that may not be achievable in rural or peri-urban communities with limited technical and financial capacity.

    “The majority of published TEA studies address large-scale centralized facilities that require substantial capital investment and well-developed feedstock logistics conditions that may not be achievable in rural or peri-urban communities with limited technical and financial capacity”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [17] Kulas, 2023, Economic and environmental analysis of plastics pyrolysis after secondary sortation of mixed plastic waste, J. Clean. Prod. source
    • cites [18] Zabaniotou, A., and Vaskalis, I. (2023). Economic assessment of polypropylene waste (pp) pyrolysis in circular economy and industrial symbiosis. Energies, 16. source

      Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 2 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Premisecitation

    Rigorous process-level techno-economic analyses remain comparatively scarce, particularly for small- and community-scale systems intended for deployment in resource-constrained settings.

    “rigorous process-level techno-economic analyses (TEAs) remain comparatively scarce, particularly for small-and community-scale systems intended for deployment in resourceconstrained settings”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim2 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [15] Yadav, 2023, Techno-economic analysis and life cycle assessment for catalytic fast pyrolysis of mixed plastic waste, Energy Environ. Sci. source

      The Introduction (page unavailable) says that, despite several existing analyses of plastic-pyrolysis refineries, a comprehensive, transparent TEA and LCA of mixed-plastic-waste pyrolysis is needed. That supports a gap in this specific literature, but the paper does not establish a broader scarcity of process-level TEAs, particularly for small- or community-scale systems in resource-constrained settings. (LLM, conf=0.86)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [16] Inayat, A., Ahmed, A., Tariq, R., Waris, A., Jamil, F., Ahmed, S.F., Ghenai, C., and Park, Y.-K. (2022). Techno-economical evaluation of bio-oil production via biomass fast pyrolysis process: A review. Front. Energy Res., 9. source

      The Introduction (page not provided) says there is a lack of comparative economic analysis for fast pyrolysis, supporting a narrower claim about gaps in economic evaluation. It does not identify a particular scarcity of rigorous process-level TEAs for small- or community-scale systems in resource-constrained settings. (LLM, conf=0.84)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Premisecitation

    SPB-500 has a maximum Cu2+ adsorption capacity of 126.1 mg g−1.

    “SPB-500 exhibited excellent Cu 2+ adsorption performance, including a maximum adsorption capacity of 126.1 mg g -1”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [25] Kreetachat, 2026, Co-pyrolyzed sawdust–polypropylene biochar as a sustainable adsorbent for heavy-metal removal in wastewater, Appl. Water Sci. source
  • Interpretationown data

    Gross GWP100 of SPB-500 (+8.771 kg CO2e/kg) is within the reported literature range for commercial GAC (3.5-9.0 kg CO2e/kg).

    “Gross GWP100 (production only) | kg CO 2 e kg -1 | +8.771 | 3.5-9.0 [28,32] | Within reported literature range”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [28] Wernet, 2016, The ecoinvent database version 3 (part I): Overview and Methodology, Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. source
    • cites [32] Alhashimi, 2017, Life cycle environmental and economic performance of biochar compared with activated carbon: A meta-analysis, Resour. Conserv. Recycl. source

      The available passage reporting the study’s results (section and page not provided) gives an average of 6.6 kg CO2eq/kg for activated carbon. It does not report the attributed 3.5–9.0 range or establish that the comparison is specifically with commercial GAC production. The +8.771 figure is the citing study’s own result, not a figure attributed to this source. (LLM, conf=0.82)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Interpretationown data

    Potential carbon-retention credit for SPB-500 (-2.477 kg CO2e/kg) is higher than variable literature values (-0.5 to -2.0 kg CO2e/kg).

    “Potential carbon-retention credit * | kg CO 2 e kg -1 | -2.477 | Variable (-0.5 to -2.0) [37] | Higher potential credit”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [37] Woolf, 2010, Sustainable biochar to mitigate global climate change, Nat. Commun. source

      The Avoided GHG emissions section identifies carbon stored as biochar in soil as a major source of avoided emissions, supporting the general idea of a carbon-retention credit. It does not report the cited literature range of −0.5 to −2.0 kg CO2e/kg; its figures use global totals in Pg CO2-Ce or ratios per unit of biomass carbon. The SPB-500 value is the citing paper’s comparison value, not a result attributed to this source. (LLM, conf=0.83)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • The authors state this as an assumption: The carbon stability factor of 0.80 represents the fraction of biochar carbon that persists in soil over >100 years under temperate conditions.
  • It may state two separate claims as one. 43
  • Probably not a substantial claim. 27
  • The quote only partly states this claim. 1

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    Co-pyrolysis of lignocellulosic biomass and plastic waste has reported thermochemical synergies: hydrogen-rich volatile compounds from PP decomposition enhance bio-oil quality and yield, while the lignocellulosic matrix of sawdust promotes stable carbonaceous biochar formation.

    “Co-pyrolysis of lignocellulosic biomass and plastic waste has attracted increasing research attention owing to reported thermochemical synergies during thermal degradation: hydrogen-rich volatile compounds released during PP decomposition enhance bio-oil quality and yield, whilst the lignocellulosic matrix of sawdust promotes stable carbonaceous biochar formation”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [8] Hongthong, 2024, Enhanced biochar production via co-pyrolysis of biomass residual with plastic waste after recycling process, Int. J. Chem. Eng. source

      Split into 2 atoms — 1 confirmed, 1 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [11] Esso, 2022, Review on synergistic effects during co-pyrolysis of biomass and plastic waste: Significance of operating conditions and interaction mechanism, Biomass Bioenergy source
    • cites [12] Hu, 2024, The effect of co-pyrolysis of bamboo waste and polypropylene on biomass deoxygenation and carbonization processes, Energy source

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    Sawdust is a lignocellulosic byproduct composed mainly of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin and is an additional challenging waste stream in wood-based processing industries.

    “Sawdust is one such lignocellulosic byproduct made up mainly of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin that serves as an additional yet challenging waste stream in wood-based processing industries”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [2] PlasticsEurope (2026, May 02). Plastics—The Facts 2024. PlasticsEurope. Available online: https://plasticseurope.org/knowledge-hub/plastics-the-fast-facts-2024/.
    • cites [6] Oony-Iye, A., Ebhodaghe, S., and Ogbeide, S. (2025). Modelling and simulation of mixed sawdust pyrolysis using Aspen Plus® software. Eur. J. Sustain. Dev. Res., 9. source

      The Introduction identifies mixed wood sawdust as lignocellulosic biomass whose three main components are cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin; the Results measure all three in a sawmill sample. The Collection and Preparation section establishes the sawmill origin, but the passages do not describe sawdust as an additional, challenging waste stream for wood-processing industries. (LLM, conf=0.86)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    Such practices result in continuous soil and water pollution, release particulates, and direct emissions of greenhouse gases, which together impose negative health impacts on communities and act as a source of climate forcing.

    “Such practices result in continuous soil and water pollution, release particulates, and direct emissions of greenhouse gases, which together impose negative health impacts on communities and act as a source of climate forcing”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [4] Xayachak, 2022, Pyrolysis for plastic waste management: An engineering perspective, J. Environ. Chem. Eng. source
    • cites [5] Chasioti, A., and Zabaniotou, A. (2024). An industrial perspective for sustainable polypropylene plastic waste management via catalytic pyrolysis—A technical report. Sustainability, 16. source

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    SPB-500 exhibits rapid equilibrium, favorable Freundlich isotherm behavior, pseudo-second-order kinetics, and good regeneration stability.

    “rapid equilibrium, favorable Freundlich isotherm behavior, pseudo-second-order kinetics, and good regeneration stability”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [25] Kreetachat, 2026, Co-pyrolyzed sawdust–polypropylene biochar as a sustainable adsorbent for heavy-metal removal in wastewater, Appl. Water Sci. source

      The Results and discussion report favorable adsorption according to Freundlich parameters, a high-correlation pseudo-second-order fit, and SPB-500 retaining about 73% adsorption efficiency after five regeneration cycles. They describe rapid initial uptake in the first 30–40 minutes followed by a slower approach to equilibrium, not rapid attainment of equilibrium. Freundlich and conventional pseudo-second-order models were not the best-fitting models. (LLM, conf=0.86)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    The base-case SROI ratio is smaller than the former estimate based on the old investment base but still exceeds one, showing positive SROI.

    “While it is smaller compared to the former estimate based on the old investment base, this number still exceeds one, which shows that the SROI is positive.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingreasoning

    With a revised total investment of 4,342,000 THB, the base-case SROI would be 1.39:1, implying a net gain of about 1.39 THB in social, environmental, and economic value for each 1 THB invested.

    “With a revised total investment of 4,342,000 THB (Table 10), the base-case SROI would be 1.39:1, implying that for each 1 THB invested into a project, there would be generated a net gain of about 1.39 THB in terms of social, environmental, and economic value.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    Further contributions to social value creation were knowledge generation (O9; 7.6%; 0.46 million THB), skill development and employment creation (O5 + O6; 3.7%; 0.23 million THB), reduction in compliance risks (O8; 3.3%; 0.20 million THB), and carbon sequestration (O7; 0.2%; 0.01 million THB).

    “In addition, further contributions were made to social value creation through knowledge generation (O9; 7.6%; 0.46 million THB), skill development and employment creation (O5 + O6; 3.7%; 0.23 million THB), reduction in compliance risks (O8; 3.3%; 0.20 million THB), and carbon sequestration (O7; 0.2%; 0.01 million THB).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    Improvements in water quality (O1) dominated the total PV (46.1%; 2.78 million THB), followed by reduction in health risks (O2) contributing 20.7% (1.25 million THB).

    “Improvements in water quality (O1) continued dominating the total PV (46.1%; 2.78 million THB), followed by reduction in health risks (O2) that contributed 20.7% of the total PV (1.25 million THB).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    Post-combustion of pyrolysis vapors, gases, and bio-oil contributed +2.890 kg CO2e per kg SPB-500, or 32.9% of gross emissions.

    “These emissions originated from three sources: LPG combustion (+3.410 kg CO 2 e kg -1 ; 38.9%), electricity consumption during feedstock drying (+2.471 kg CO 2 e kg -1 ; 28.2%), and post-combustion of pyrolysis vapors, gases, and bio-oil (+2.890 kg CO 2 e kg -1 ; 32.9%).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    On a performance-normalized basis, the GWP100 of SPB-500 was 0.047 g CO2e per g Cu2+ removed, within the lower range reported for commercial GAC.

    “On a performance-normalized basis, the GWP100 of 0.047 g CO 2 e g -1 Cu 2+ removed was within the lower range reported for commercial GAC.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    Environmental waste-diversion benefits (O3 and O4) were responsible for 18.4% of PV, whereas employment creation and skills development (O5 and O6) for 3.7%.

    “Environmental waste-diversion benefits (O3 and O4) were responsible for 18.4% of PV, whereas employment creation and skills development (O5 and O6) for 3.7%.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    LPG combustion contributed +3.410 kg CO2e per kg SPB-500, or 38.9% of gross emissions.

    “These emissions originated from three sources: LPG combustion (+3.410 kg CO 2 e kg -1 ; 38.9%), electricity consumption during feedstock drying (+2.471 kg CO 2 e kg -1 ; 28.2%), and post-combustion of pyrolysis vapors, gases, and bio-oil (+2.890 kg CO 2 e kg -1 ; 32.9%).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    Electricity consumption during feedstock drying contributed +2.471 kg CO2e per kg SPB-500, or 28.2% of gross emissions.

    “These emissions originated from three sources: LPG combustion (+3.410 kg CO 2 e kg -1 ; 38.9%), electricity consumption during feedstock drying (+2.471 kg CO 2 e kg -1 ; 28.2%), and post-combustion of pyrolysis vapors, gases, and bio-oil (+2.890 kg CO 2 e kg -1 ; 32.9%).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    SDG 6 received the largest share (46.1%) of total social value, followed by SDG 3 with 20.7% and SDG 12 with 18.4% as a result of environmental outcomes.

    “SDG 6 (clean water and sanitation) received the largest share (46.1%) of the total social value, followed by SDG 3 (good health and well-being) with 20.7% and SDG 12 (responsible consumption and production) with 18.4% as a result of environmental outcomes.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    The environmental screening of SPB-500 shows total gate-to-gate emissions of 8.771 kg CO2e per kg SPB-500, with the highest contribution from the LPG combustion stage.

    “The environmental screening of SPB-500 shows the total gate-to-gate emissions of 8.771 kg CO 2 e per kg SPB-500 with the highest contribution from the LPG combustion stage.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    Additional contributions to UN SDGs were observed for SDG 17 with 7.6%, SDG 8 with 3.7%, and SDG 13 with 0.2%.

    “Additional contribution to the achievement of UN SDGs was observed for SDG 17 (partnerships for the goals) with 7.6%, SDG 8 (decent work and economic growth) with 3.7%, and SDG 13 (climate action) with 0.2%.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    Social return on investment analysis gives a ratio of 1.39:1 and a five-year NPV of 6.03 million THB.

    “Social return on investment analysis gives a ratio of 1.39:1 and five-year NPV of 6.03 million THB.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingreasoning

    With an expected SPB-500 production cost of 8.8 USD/kg, annual production costs would be 10,560 USD/year, leading to net savings of about 85,440 USD/year.

    “Nevertheless, with the expected production cost of SPB-500 of 8.8 USD kg -1 , the annual production costs would be 10,560 USD year -1 , thus leading to net savings of about 85,440 USD year”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    Health risk reduction (O2) had 20.7% share of total PV, followed by sawdust diversion (O3) with 15.3%.

    “It was followed by health risk reduction (O2; 20.7%) and sawdust diversion (O3; 15.3%).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingnone given

    Environmental health benefits are the largest monetized benefits and constitute more than half of the social value created.

    “Environmental health benefits are the largest monetized benefits and constitute more than half of the social value created.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingreasoning

    The hybrid scenario-based net greenhouse-gas balance of SPB-500 (+3.082 kg CO2e/kg) is lower than the profiles of commercial GAC (+3.5 to +9.0), PAC (+4.0 to +10.0), and commercial biochar (-0.5 to +3.0), supporting its potential application under the evaluated scenario.

    “As illustrated in Figure 5a, the hybrid scenario-based net greenhouse-gas balance of SPB-500 (+3.082 kg CO 2 e kg -1 ) is less sharp than the scenario-based greenhouse-gas assessment profiles of commercial GAC (+3.5 to +9.0 kg CO 2 e kg -1 ), PAC (+4.0 to +10.0 kg CO 2 e kg -1 ), and commercial biochar (-0.5 to +3.0 kg CO 2 e kg -1 ), supporting its potential application under the evaluated”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingcitation

    Waste-input classification of both feedstocks under ISO 14044 Annex B eliminates all upstream production burdens and generates two avoided-emission credits: landfill CH4 avoidance (-1.596 kg CO2e/kg) and PP open-burning avoidance (-1.616 kg CO2e/kg).

    “First, waste-input classification of both feedstocks under ISO 14044 Annex B eliminates all upstream production burdens and generates two avoided-emission credit landfill CH 4 avoidance (-1.596 kg CO 2 e kg -1 ) and PP openburning avoidance (-1.616 kg CO 2 e kg -1 ), which is a structural advantage unavailable to fossil-derived or virgin-biomass adsorbents.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites ISO 14044 Annex B

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • The authors state this as an assumption: Landfill methane emissions are reduced by diverting sawdust.
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Open burning emissions are reduced by diverting polypropylene.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    The SS-based pyrolysis reactor was the highest CAPEX component (54.3%), followed by the drying unit, the LPG burner, and other components.

    “the SS-based pyrolysis reactor was the highest component (54.3%) of the expense, followed by the drying unit, the LPG burner, and other components”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    Labor was the largest OPEX component (72.4%), followed by maintenance, LPG consumption, and electrical power consumption; no raw material cost was included.

    “Labor was the biggest OPEX (72.4%) followed by maintenance, LPG consumption, and electrical power consumption, whereas no expenses were considered for the cost of the raw materials due to their nature being waste materials”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    SPB-500 production can be realized using a custom-designed LPG-fired pyrolysis unit with an initial capital cost of 46,000 THB (1286 USD) and an operational cost of 316 THB/kg (8.8 USD/kg) at a biochar yield of about 35% (w/w).

    “From the results of the techno-economic analysis, it can be concluded that the production of SPB-500 can be realized using a custom-designed LPG-fired pyrolysis unit with a relatively low initial capital cost of 46,000 THB (1286 USD) and an operational cost of 316 THB kg -1 (8.8 USD kg -1 ) at a biochar yield of about 35% (w/w).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    Under the proposed system, cumulative cash flow becomes positive and the initial investment is paid back within the first month of operation.

    “As seen from Figure 4c, the revenue grows gradually in time, whereas operating costs are rather low, leading to rapid positive cash flow and payback of the initial investment even within the first month.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    In the revised case scenario, the overall five-year PV of all outcomes reached 6,025,841 THB against an overall investment of 4,342,000 THB, resulting in an SROI ratio of 1.39:1 in the base-case scenario.

    “In the revised case scenario, the overall five-year PV of all outcomes reached 6,025,841 THB against the overall investment of 4,342,000 THB, resulting in an SROI ratio of 1.39:1 in the base-case scenario.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    H/Corg of SPB-500 is 0.022, confirming <0.4.

    “H/C org (0.022) calculated confirmed <0.4 for SPB-500 sample.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingown data

    Total adjusted value of outcomes in year 1 is 1,427,532 THB.

    “Total | | | | | | | 1,427,532”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Avoided bottled-water expenditure for 50 households is valued at 750,000 THB/yr.
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Avoided air pollution cost from sawdust diversion is valued at 280,000 THB/yr, based on PM2.5 health price of 35 USD/t and CO2e carbon impact.
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Avoided landfill and marine pollution cost from PP diversion is valued at 62,000 THB/yr, based on 250 USD/t social cost.
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Value of equivalent vocational training is 30,000 THB/yr.
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Carbon credit price is 35 USD/t CO2e (Thai voluntary carbon market estimate).
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Average environmental violation fine avoided is 120,000 THB/yr (PCD Thailand, solid waste).
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Knowledge and research value is estimated at 200,000 THB/yr (bibliometric proxy).
    • The authors state this as an assumption: The SROI analysis applies dead-weight, attribution, and drop-off adjustment factors to outcome values (e.g., 5-30% dead-weight, 70-100% attribution, 0-20% drop-off).
    • Rests on an assumption: The project produces 1200 kg SPB per year.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationown data

    SPB-500 co-pyrolysis has the potential to be an economically accessible and socially beneficial waste-valorization technology under the evaluated scenario, supporting its potential application in decentralized heavy-metal remediation in resource-constrained communities.

    “Collectively, these findings suggest that SPB-500 co-pyrolysis has the potential to be an economically accessible and socially beneficial waste-valorization technology under the evaluated scenario, supporting its potential application in decentralized heavy-metal remediation in resource-constrained communities.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Sawdust waste is produced in large volumes in sawmills and furniture factories in Chaiyaphum province, Thailand, and is disposed of through unregulated incineration due to lack of proper collection and energy recovery systems.
    • The authors state this as an assumption: SPB-500 achieves up to approximately 90% heavy-metal removal under the experimental operating conditions (adsorbent dosage of 1 g per 100 mL and inlet Cu2+ concentrations up to 200 mg L−1).
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Five regeneration cycles maintain ≥73% removal efficiency.
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Without the project, contaminated wastewater would be discharged to adjacent waterways.
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Sawdust and PP waste would otherwise be openly burned and landfill-disposed, respectively.
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Two full-time equivalent positions are generated over the operational period.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisecitation

    Polypropylene constitutes approximately 20% of total global plastic output.

    “polypropylene (PP) constituting approximately 20% of total output”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [1] OECD (2022). Global Plastics Outlook: Economic Drivers, Environmental Impacts and Policy Options, OECD Publishing. source
    • cites [2] PlasticsEurope (2026, May 02). Plastics—The Facts 2024. PlasticsEurope. Available online: https://plasticseurope.org/knowledge-hub/plastics-the-fast-facts-2024/.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    A substantial proportion of post-consumer PP waste falls outside formal recycling infrastructure, particularly in low- and middle-income countries, where inadequate collection systems result in open dumping, uncontrolled burning, and landfill disposal.

    “a substantial proportion of post-consumer PP waste falls outside formal recycling infrastructure, particularly in low-and middle-income countries, where inadequate collection systems result in open dumping, uncontrolled burning, and landfill disposal”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [3] OECD (2026, January 13). Environment. Available online: https://www.oecd.org/environment/plastic-waste-to-almost-triple-by-2060.htm.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    Most community-scale research considers only one type of heating and provides insufficient information about the sustainability of a specific combination of fuels.

    “most community-scale research considers only one type of heating and provides insufficient information about the sustainability of a specific combination of fuels”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [19] Hasan, 2024, An aspen plus process simulation model for exploring the feasibility and profitability of pyrolysis process for plastic waste management, J. Environ. Manag. source
    • cites [20] Nistor, 2022, Modeling and optimization of acid orange 7 adsorption process using magnetite/carbon nanocomposite, Sustain. Chem. Pharm. source

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisecitation

    Global plastic production has exceeded 400 million tons per year.

    “Global plastic production has exceeded 400 million tons per year”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [1] OECD (2022). Global Plastics Outlook: Economic Drivers, Environmental Impacts and Policy Options, OECD Publishing. source
    • cites [2] PlasticsEurope (2026, May 02). Plastics—The Facts 2024. PlasticsEurope. Available online: https://plasticseurope.org/knowledge-hub/plastics-the-fast-facts-2024/.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Study design and conductown data

    The SROI analysis did not consider data gathered through social impact assessment, stakeholders' opinions, or local authorities.

    “The analysis did not consider any data gathered through social impact assessment or stakeholders' opinions or even information from the local authorities.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationown data

    The scenario-based techno-economic analysis indicates a short estimated payback period under the assumed production capacity and selling price, suggesting favorable economic potential for future community-scale implementation.

    “Moreover, the scenario-based techno-economic analysis indicates a short, estimated payback period under the assumed production capacity and selling price, suggesting favorable economic potential for future community-scale implementation.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    SROI figures should be regarded as scenario-based estimates rather than actual social impacts.

    “They should thus be regarded as estimates, based on scenarios, rather than being seen as actual social impacts.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Study design and conductown data

    The payback analysis is a preliminary screening-level economic evaluation based on laboratory-scale production data and a hypothetical annual production volume.

    “the above payback analysis constitutes only a preliminary screening-level economic evaluation made with respect to the current laboratory-scale production data and a hypothetical annual production volume”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Benefits such as water quality improvements, health risk reductions, waste management benefits, and employment creation remained constant throughout the assessment period.

    “Accordingly, benefits such as water quality improvements, health risk reductions, waste management benefits, and employment creation remained constant throughout the assessment period.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationnone given

    The relatively small contribution of O7 is caused by the current undervaluation of carbon credits in the Thai voluntary carbon market and not by limitations in SPB-500's ability to store carbon.

    “In this regard, it should be acknowledged that the relatively small contribution of O7 is caused by the current undervaluation of carbon credits in the Thai voluntary carbon market and not because of some limitations in SPB-500 ′ s ability to store carbon.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Study design and conductnone given

    These results represent screening-level estimates and should be validated through pilot-scale operation and detailed financial analyses before commercialization.

    “However, these results represent screening-level estimates and should be validated through pilot-scale operation and detailed financial analyses before commercialization.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductnone given

    This study constitutes only a preliminary economic assessment of the technology.

    “However, it should be noted that this study only constitutes a preliminary economic assessment of the technology.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationown data

    Even with conservative assumptions, the social return on investment remained positive (>1.0), providing further evidence that deployment of SPB-500 at the community level would generate overall social and environmental value.

    “Even with conservative assumptions, the social return on investment remained positive (>1.0), providing further evidence that the deployment of SPB-500 at the community level would generate overall social and environmental value.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Study design and conductnone given

    A thorough multi-factorial uncertainty analysis has not yet been undertaken, although a sensitivity analysis was carried out for the SROI evaluation.

    “Even though a sensitivity analysis has been carried out for the SROI evaluation, a thorough multi-factorial uncertainty analysis has not yet been undertaken.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Study design and conductnone given

    SROI figures depend on the proxies used and assumptions about attribution, deadweight, displacement, and drop-off.

    “These SROI figures depend on the proxies used and the assumptions about attribution, deadweight, displacement, and drop-off.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: The SROI estimates assume specific attribution, deadweight, displacement, and drop-off rates.

  • Probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    The reported annual production capacity, techno-economic performance, and SROI outcomes are scenario-based screening estimates intended to evaluate the potential feasibility of community-scale implementation.

    “The reported annual production capacity, techno-economic performance, and SROI outcomes are scenario-based screening estimates intended to evaluate the potential feasibility of community-scale implementation.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Study design and conductnone given

    Sensitivity analyses were undertaken to examine the validity of the computed SROI ratio under different assumptions.

    “sensitivity analyses have been undertaken to examine the validity of the computed SROI ratio under different assumptions”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The thermally stable aromatic carbon matrix formed during co-pyrolysis at 500°C permanently sequesters 0.675 kg C per kg SPB over timescales exceeding 100 years, contributing the largest individual credit of -2.477 kg CO2e/kg.

    “Second, the thermally stable aromatic carbon matrix formed during co-pyrolysis at 500 • C permanently sequesters 0.675 kg C kg -1 SPB over timescales exceeding 100 years (H/C org ) = 0.022; this is well below the IBI stability threshold of 0.4), contributing the largest individual credit of -2.477 kg CO 2 e kg -1 .”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites IBI stability threshold

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • The authors state this as an assumption: Carbon in biochar is stable over the relevant time horizon, including timescales exceeding 100 years.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The absence of chemical activation reagents is a particularly important advantage because KOH and ZnCl2 activation of GAC generates substantial wastewater treatment burdens and contributes to freshwater eutrophication and ecotoxicity impacts that are entirely absent from the SPB process.

    “The absence of chemical activation reagents represents a particularly important advantage, as KOH and ZnCl 2 activation of GAC generates substantial wastewater treatment burdens and contributes to freshwater eutrophication and ecotoxicity impacts that are entirely absent from the SPB process.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Study design and conductnone given

    A comparative evaluation of other fuel sources for cooking, including biomass pellets and natural gas, was beyond the scope of this project.

    “Despite having selected LPG for being available, easy to operate, and commonly used in rural areas in Thailand, a comparative evaluation of other fuel sources for cooking, including biomass pellets and natural gas, was beyond the scope of this project.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Study design and conductnone given

    All experimental, economic, and environmental assessments in this study were based exclusively on the LPG-fired configuration; alternative heating fuels were not evaluated.

    “All experimental, economic, and environmental assessments in this study were based exclusively on the LPG-fired configuration used during reactor operation; alternative heating fuels were not evaluated.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    The environmental comparisons should be interpreted as preliminary environmental benchmarks because differences in feedstock, production processes, adsorption performance, and system boundaries may influence reported results.

    “These comparisons should be interpreted as preliminary environmental benchmarks because differences in feedstock, production processes, adsorption performance, and system boundaries may influence the reported results.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    The projected annual production capacity of 1200 kg SPB-500/year is a simplified economic scaling study and cannot be assumed as proven production capacity of the laboratory-scale reactor.

    “This projection of a production capacity of 1200 kg SPB-500 yr -1 from the technoeconomic analysis is a representation of a simplified economic scaling study and cannot be assumed as the proven production capacity of the reactor tested at a laboratory scale within this study.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The comparison in Figure 4d should be interpreted as a preliminary economic and environmental benchmark rather than evidence of direct functional substitutability between SPB-500 and commercial activated carbons.

    “In Figure 4d, therefore, the comparison should be interpreted as a preliminary economic and environmental benchmark rather than evidence of direct functional substitutability between SPB-500 and commercialactivated carbons.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductnone given

    The projected annual production capacity (1200 kg SPB-500/year), economic performance, and associated SROI results are scenario-based screening estimates derived from a simplified community-scale deployment scenario.

    “It should be emphasized that the projected annual production capacity (1200 kg SPB-500 year -1 ), economic performance, and associated SROI results represent scenariobased screening estimates derived from a simplified community-scale deployment scenario.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductnone given

    The estimated GHG balance depends on assumptions related to the stability of carbon in biochar, reduced methane from landfills, and reduced emissions from open burning.

    “It needs to be recognized that the estimated GHG balance depends on assumptions related to the stability of carbon in biochar, reduced methane from landfills, and reduced emissions from open burning.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Carbon in biochar is stable over the relevant time horizon, including timescales exceeding 100 years.
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Landfill methane emissions are reduced by diverting sawdust.
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Open burning emissions are reduced by diverting polypropylene.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Compared to activated carbon production, SPB-500 production has lower energy demand and less environmental impacts due to the avoidance of chemical activation.

    “Compared to activated carbon production process, SPB-500 production has lower energy demand and less environmental impacts due to the avoidance of chemical activation.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    Deadweight rates were set at 0% for carbon sequestration and 30% for compliance-risk reduction to provide a conservative estimation of social value.

    “Deadweight rates were set at 0% for carbon sequestration and 30% for compliance-risk reduction in order to provide a conservative estimation of the social value.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    These results should not be interpreted as experimentally demonstrated community-scale reactor performance.

    “These results are intended to evaluate the potential feasibility of future implementation and should not be interpreted as experimentally demonstrated community-scale reactor performance.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationown data

    SPB-500 achieves a scenario-based net GWP100 of +3.082 kg CO2e per kg when avoided waste emission credits are included, making it one of the most environmentally favorable adsorbent options.

    “The comparison demonstrates that SPB-500 achieves a scenario-based greenhouse-gas assessment net GWP100 of +3.082 kg CO 2 e kg -1 when avoided waste emission credits are included, making it one of the most environmentally favorable adsorbent options.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Interpretationown data

    Knowledge generation benefits (O9) became less relevant over time because of their annual drop-off rate of 20%.

    “Knowledge generation benefits (O9) became less relevant with the passage of time because of their annual drop-off rate of 20%.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    These SROI findings should be interpreted based on scenarios because they rely heavily on financial indicators from the literature rather than actual social impact figures obtained through direct engagement with stakeholders.

    “These SROI findings should be interpreted based on scenarios because they rely heavily on financial indicators from the literature rather than actual social impact figures obtained through direct engagement with stakeholders.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationnone given

    Outcomes O1-O5 were expected to maintain adjusted benefits throughout the entire five-year period, affected only by annual discounting.

    “In particular, the outcomes O1-O5 were expected to maintain the adjusted benefits throughout the entire five years' period, hence being affected only by the annual discounting effect.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisecitation

    GWP100 of CH4 is 27.9 kg CO2e.

    “GWP 100 of CH 4 = 27.9 kg CO 2 e.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [29] Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) (2023). Climate Change 2021—The Physical Science Basis: Working Group I Contribution to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel On Climate Change, Cambridge University Press. source

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisecitation

    LPG emission factor is 2.983 kg CO2e per kg LPG.

    “LPG combustion (stationary) | kg CO 2 e kg -1 LPG | EF LPG | 2.983 | IPCC 2006, Vol.2, Tier 1 [29]”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [29] Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) (2023). Climate Change 2021—The Physical Science Basis: Working Group I Contribution to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel On Climate Change, Cambridge University Press. source
65 of 65

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Sawdust waste is produced in large volumes in sawmills and furniture factories in Chaiyaphum province, Thailand, and is disposed of through unregulated incineration due to lack of proper collection and energy recovery systems.

    “As witnessed in rural and peri-urban parts of Southeast Asia, and particularly within the Chaiyaphum province of Thailand analyzed in this study, sawdust waste is produced in large volumes in both sawmills and furniture factories, which dispose of this waste through unregulated incineration due to lack of proper collection and energy recovery systems.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Carbon stored in biochar is stable.

    “assumptions regarding the stability of carbon stored in biochar”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Diverting the sawdust waste stream reduces landfill emissions.

    “the reduction in the emissions from landfills by diverting the sawdust waste stream”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Open burning of polypropylene waste is prevented, avoiding emissions.

    “the prevention of any emissions that might arise due to the open burning of polypropylene waste”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Environmentally sound end-of-life management is capable of preserving long-term carbon storage.

    “the carbon-retention credit reported in this study assumes environmentally sound end-of-life (EOL) management capable of preserving long-term carbon storage”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    SPB-500 achieves up to approximately 90% heavy-metal removal under the experimental operating conditions (adsorbent dosage of 1 g per 100 mL and inlet Cu2+ concentrations up to 200 mg L−1).

    “SPB-500 achieves up to approximately 90% heavy-metal removal under the experimental operating conditions (adsorbent dosage of 1 g per 100 mL and inlet Cu 2+ concentrations up to 200 mg L -1 )”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Five regeneration cycles maintain ≥73% removal efficiency.

    “five regeneration cycles maintaining ≥73% removal efficiency”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Without the project, contaminated wastewater would be discharged to adjacent waterways.

    “without the project, contaminated wastewater would be discharged to adjacent waterways”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Sawdust and PP waste would otherwise be openly burned and landfill-disposed, respectively.

    “sawdust and PP waste would otherwise be openly burned and landfill-disposed, respectively”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Two full-time equivalent positions are generated over the operational period.

    “two full-time equivalent positions are generated over the operational period”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Carbon in biochar is stable over the relevant time horizon, including timescales exceeding 100 years.

    “It needs to be recognized that the estimated GHG balance depends on assumptions related to the stability of carbon in biochar, reduced methane from landfills, and reduced emissions from open burning.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Landfill methane emissions are reduced by diverting sawdust.

    “It needs to be recognized that the estimated GHG balance depends on assumptions related to the stability of carbon in biochar, reduced methane from landfills, and reduced emissions from open burning.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Open burning emissions are reduced by diverting polypropylene.

    “It needs to be recognized that the estimated GHG balance depends on assumptions related to the stability of carbon in biochar, reduced methane from landfills, and reduced emissions from open burning.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    The SROI estimates assume specific attribution, deadweight, displacement, and drop-off rates.

    “These SROI figures depend on the proxies used and the assumptions about attribution, deadweight, displacement, and drop-off.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    The carbon stability factor of 0.80 represents the fraction of biochar carbon that persists in soil over >100 years under temperate conditions.

    “Stability factor, 0.80 (IBI content = 0.675 kg C criterion), Stable carbon”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    The avoided landfill CH4 and avoided PP open burning credits assume an alternative disposal scenario (landfill for sawdust, open burning for PP).

    “Alternative disposal scenario”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Avoided bottled-water expenditure for 50 households is valued at 750,000 THB/yr.

    “Avoided bottled-water supply cost only) expenditure (alternative water | 750,000”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Avoided air pollution cost from sawdust diversion is valued at 280,000 THB/yr, based on PM2.5 health price of 35 USD/t and CO2e carbon impact.

    “Avoided air pollution cost: PM2.5 health price (35 USD t -1 ) impact + CO 2 e carbon | 280,000”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Avoided landfill and marine pollution cost from PP diversion is valued at 62,000 THB/yr, based on 250 USD/t social cost.

    “Avoided landfill cost + avoided marine t -1 social cost) pollution cost (250 USD | 62,000”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Value of equivalent vocational training is 30,000 THB/yr.

    “Value of equivalent course (market rate) vocational training | 30,000”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Carbon credit price is 35 USD/t CO2e (Thai voluntary carbon market estimate).

    “Carbon credit price: 35 USD t -1 CO 2 e (Thai voluntary carbon | 3707”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Average environmental violation fine avoided is 120,000 THB/yr (PCD Thailand, solid waste).

    “Average environmental violation) fine avoided (PCD Thailand, solid waste | 120,000”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Knowledge and research value is estimated at 200,000 THB/yr (bibliometric proxy).

    “Estimated grant (bibliometric proxy) equivalent and knowledge externality | 200,000”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    The SROI analysis applies dead-weight, attribution, and drop-off adjustment factors to outcome values (e.g., 5-30% dead-weight, 70-100% attribution, 0-20% drop-off).

    “Dead-weight | Attribution | Drop-Off”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The project produces 1200 kg SPB per year.

    “2.857 kg/kg SPB × 1200 kg/yr = 3.43 t/yr”
25 of 25

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Public-health benefits alone do not cover the investment

    Major

    The abstract says water-quality and health benefits alone justify the investment. Yet Table 15 reports an SROI below 1 even for a broader set that also includes employment and skills benefits.

  • Commercial biochar's net-GWP upper bound differs

    Minor

    Section 3.4 gives the commercial-biochar range an upper bound of +3.0, whereas Table 9 gives +2.0 for the same net-GWP comparison.

  • Sawdust-diversion calculation uses total feedstock instead of sawdust

    Minor

    The SROI outcome labels 2.857 kg per kg SPB as sawdust diverted, whereas Table 10 identifies that quantity as total feedstock and gives sawdust input as 2.286 kg per kg SPB.

  • Feedstock costs are listed despite a claim of none

    Minor

    The operating-cost discussion says no raw-material expenses were considered, but Table 2 charges 0.4 THB per batch for sawdust and 0.4 THB for PP waste.

  • The reported number of aligned SDGs changes from five to six

    Minor

    The abstract says alignment is demonstrated across five SDGs, while Section 3.7 names six distinct goals: 6, 3, 12, 17, 8, and 13.

5 of 5

Citations

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 1

  1. Aymerich, 2015, Minimizing N2O emissions and carbon footprint on a full-scale activated sludge sequencing batch reactor, Water Res., 71, 1

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Metadata

Authors
Kreetachat, T., Khaowdang, S., Imman, S., Suriyachai, N., Kreetachat, N., Suwannahong, K., Hongthong, S., & Wongcharee, S.
Affiliations
  • University of Phayao (TH)
  • Burapha University (TH)
  • Chaiyaphum Rajabhat University (TH)
  • Mahasarakham University (TH)
Corresponding author
Wongcharee, Surachai
ORCID
Venue
Energies
Publisher
MDPI AG
Published
2026-07-14
Volume
19
Issue
14
Pages
3330
ISSN
1996-1073 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.3390/en19143330
OpenAlex
W7168276837
Cited by
1
References
33
Citations by year
2026: 1
FWCI
1.54
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Energies (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion)
Funders
  • Mahasarakham University
  • University of Phayao
Topics
  • Physical Sciences › Energy › Fuel Technology › Thermochemical Biomass Conversion Processes
  • Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Water Science and Technology › Adsorption and biosorption for pollutant removal
  • Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Waste Management and Disposal › Municipal Solid Waste Management
Keywords
biochar, heavy metal adsorbents, waste valorization, rural communities, techno-economic analysis, social return on investment, CO2 emissions, carbon sequestration, waste diversion, water quality improvement, health risk reduction, Sustainable Development Goals

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