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Battery Management Systems in Electric and Hybrid Vehicles
Open accessAbstract
The battery management system (BMS) is a critical component of electric and hybrid electric vehicles. The purpose of the BMS is to guarantee safe and reliable battery operation. To maintain the safety and reliability of the battery, state monitoring and evaluation, charge control, and cell balancing are functionalities that have been implemented in BMS. As an electrochemical product, a battery acts differently under different operational and environmental conditions. The uncertainty of a battery’s performance poses a challenge to the implementation of these functions. This paper addresses concerns for current BMSs. State evaluation of a battery, including state of charge, state of health, and state of life, is a critical task for a BMS. Through reviewing the latest methodologies for the state evaluation of batteries, the future challenges for BMSs are presented and possible solutions are proposed as well.
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“Other authors, such as Xing et al. [88], present a review of BMS for Battery Electric (BEVs) and Hybrid Vehicles (HVs) when considering the state of charge, the state of health, and the state of life, as the key features to be considered by BMSs.”
From A Review on Electric Vehicles: Technologies and Challenges (2021) · cites this paper as [88]
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Xing, Y., Ma, E. W. M., Tsui, K., & PECHT, M. G. (2012) · Prognostics and System Health Management Conference · doi:10.1109/phm.2012.6228847 · Cited by 26
Li, L.-L., Liu, Z., & Wang, C.-H. (2018) · Journal of Testing and Evaluation · doi:10.1520/jte20170558 · Cited by 27
Qasem, M., Haddadin, M., Yassin, Y., Ratrout, S., Chen, C., Stoyanov, S., Al‐Hallaj, S., & Krishnamurthy, M. (2025) · IEEE Transactions on Transportation Electrification · doi:10.1109/tte.2025.3527899 · Cited by 26
“Modern BMS designs have evolved to incorporate advanced features such as cell balancing, thermal management, and state estimation, which are crucial for maintaining battery performance and safety [35].”
Review on Battery State Estimation and Management Solutions for Next-Generation Connected Vehicles
Luca, G. D., Blasio, G. D., Gimelli, A., & Misul, D. A. (2023) · Energies · doi:10.3390/en17010202 · Cited by 31
A lithium-ion battery RUL prognosis method using temperature changing rate
Li, Y., Zhao, L., Su, X., & Wang, S. (2016) · IEEE Conference on Prognostics and Health Management · doi:10.1109/icphm.2016.7542866 · Cited by 25
Zhao, X. Q., Guo, B., & Chen, Y. (2023) · Reliability Engineering & System Safety · doi:10.1016/j.ress.2023.109710 · Cited by 25
Afia, S. E., Cano-Ortega, A., Arévalo-Cordero, P., & Jurado, F. (2024) · Energies · doi:10.3390/en17225634 · Cited by 24
Pandur, Z., Šušnjar, M., & Bačić, M. (2020) · Croatian journal of forest engineering · doi:10.5552/crojfe.2021.798 · Cited by 24
“The main function of the BMS is to ensure that the battery pack is operated within safe limits and achieves optimal performance over its use life and under a wide range of operating and environmental conditions (Xing et al. 2011).”
Mukherjee, S., & Chowdhury, K. (2023) · Energy Systems · doi:10.1007/s12667-023-00631-x · Cited by 27
“A detailed schematic diagram is shown below [17]: At the time of discharge, the cell performs the following reaction And at the time of charging the cell performs the following responses When the discharge process starts, positive electrodes accept freely accessible Li-ions.”
Liu, Y., Zhang, L., Jiang, J., Wei, S., Liu, S., & Zhang, W. (2017) · Energies · doi:10.3390/en10050597 · Cited by 23
Friansa, K., Haq, I. N., Leksono, E., Tapran, N., Kurniadi, D., & Yuliarto, B. (2017) · International Conference on Electric Vehicular Technology (ICEVT) · doi:10.1109/icevt.2017.8323541 · Cited by 23
“Using a BMS with battery cell monitoring, protection and balancing system may achieve the battery system full capacity and lifetime [6].”
MethodBattery management system on electric bike using Lithium-Ion 18650
Soeprapto, S., Hasanah, R. N., & Taufik, T. (2019) · International Journal of Power Electronics and Drive Systems (IJPEDS) · doi:10.11591/ijpeds.v10.i3.pp1529-1537 · Cited by 23
“BMS (Battery Management System) is a device employed to monitor battery’s voltage and current, and it performs battery pack balancing system to protect the battery from damage [3, 6, 7, 16, 17].”
BackgroundNonlinear Structural Model of the Battery
Galushkin, N. E., Yazvinskaya, N. N., & Galushkin, D. N. (2014) · International Journal of Electrochemical Science · doi:10.1016/s1452-3981(23)10890-x · Cited by 23
Experimental analysis on battery based health monitoring system for electric vehicle
Selvabharathi, D., & Muruganantham, N. (2020) · Materials Today Proceedings · doi:10.1016/j.matpr.2020.08.303 · Cited by 22
Battery Management System for Unmanned Electric Vehicles with CAN BUS and Internet of Things
Pham, N. N., Leuchter, J., Pham, K. L., & Dong, Q. H. (2022) · Vehicles · doi:10.3390/vehicles4030037 · Cited by 22
Metadata
- Authors
- Xing, Y., Ma, E. W. M., Tsui, K. L., & Pecht, M.
- Affiliations
- City University of Hong Kong (HK)
- Corresponding author
- Pecht, Michael
- Venue
- Energies
- Publisher
- MDPI AG
- Published
- 2011-10-31
- Volume
- 4
- Issue
- 11
- Pages
- 1840-1857
- ISSN
- 1996-1073 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2095027161
- Cited by
- 540
- References
- 33
- Citations by year
- 2026: 35 · 2025: 48 · 2024: 50 · 2023: 53 · 2022: 43 · 2021: 63 · 2020: 37 · 2019: 43 · 2018: 31 · 2017: 37 · 2016: 27 · 2015: 26 · 2014: 24 · 2013: 18 · 2012: 5
- FWCI
- 30.79
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Energies (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- CityU Scholars (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Funders
- City University of Hong Kong
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Automotive Engineering › Battery Modeling and Management
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Automotive Engineering › Electric and Hybrid Vehicle Technologies
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Electrical and Electronic Engineering › Advancements in Battery Materials
- Keywords
- battery management systems, electric vehicles, hybrid electric vehicles, state of charge estimation, state of health estimation, battery state monitoring, charge control, battery balancing
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