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Battery Management Systems in Electric and Hybrid Vehicles
Open accessAbstract
The battery management system (BMS) is a critical component of electric and hybrid electric vehicles. The purpose of the BMS is to guarantee safe and reliable battery operation. To maintain the safety and reliability of the battery, state monitoring and evaluation, charge control, and cell balancing are functionalities that have been implemented in BMS. As an electrochemical product, a battery acts differently under different operational and environmental conditions. The uncertainty of a battery’s performance poses a challenge to the implementation of these functions. This paper addresses concerns for current BMSs. State evaluation of a battery, including state of charge, state of health, and state of life, is a critical task for a BMS. Through reviewing the latest methodologies for the state evaluation of batteries, the future challenges for BMSs are presented and possible solutions are proposed as well.
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“Other authors, such as Xing et al. [88], present a review of BMS for Battery Electric (BEVs) and Hybrid Vehicles (HVs) when considering the state of charge, the state of health, and the state of life, as the key features to be considered by BMSs.”
From A Review on Electric Vehicles: Technologies and Challenges (2021) · cites this paper as [88]
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Cites
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BackgroundMethodInfluential
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Items 201–300 of 538
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“A battery management system (BMS) is a critical part of an EV that is responsible for monitoring the internal vehicle data while detecting and preventing any abnormal conditions such as overheating or overvoltage [20], as shown in Fig.”
BackgroundTudoroiu, R.-E., Zaheeruddin, M., Radu, S. M., & Tudoroiu, N. (2018) · Batteries · doi:10.3390/batteries4020019 · Cited by 19
“In order to achieve these goals, many researchers from BMS’ HEVs/EVs control systems community investigate extensively new battery models, the most suitable SOC estimation techniques, as well as the consistency evaluation and battery cells SOC balancing, such as stated in [14,15].”
BackgroundInfluentialKurniawan, A., & Shintaku, E. (2020) · International Journal of Machine Learning and Computing · doi:10.18178/ijmlc.2020.10.2.928 · Cited by 19
Nitesh, K., & Ravichandra (2021) · SN Computer Science · doi:10.1007/s42979-021-00600-0 · Cited by 19
Operation and control of wind/fuel cell based hybrid microgrid in grid connected mode
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“References [59, 60] provide comprehensive coverage of battery management systems and the use of Kalman filters for SOC estimation.”
InfluentialZhang, Q., Han, J., Li, G., & Liu, Y. (2020) · International Journal of Electrochemical Science · doi:10.20964/2020.04.50 · Cited by 18
Nanaki, E. A. (2020) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-815801-2.00006-x · Cited by 18
Desai, N. V., Juvekar, C., Chandak, S., & Chandrakasan, A. P. (2017) · IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits · doi:10.1109/jssc.2017.2737562 · Cited by 18
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New Trends in Electrical Vehicle Powertrains
Martínez, L., & Delgado-Prieto, M. (2019) · IntechOpen eBooks · doi:10.5772/intechopen.72524 · Cited by 17
“); (4) the ability to prevent over-charge or over-discharge of the battery; (5)efficient battery energy utilization, thermal management and SOC cell balancing; (6) delivery of battery status and authentication to a user interface; (7) the ability to communicate with vehicle controller and all other components [13, 16].”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialArtificial Intelligent Techniques for Electric and Hybrid Electric Vehicles
Chitra, A., Padmanaban, S., Holm‐Nielsen, J. B., & Himavathi, S. (2020) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781119682035 · Cited by 17
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Cycle life characterisation of large format lithium-ion cells
Arunachala, R., Makinejad, K., Athlekar, S., Jossen, A., & Garche, J. (2013) · World Electric Vehicle Symposium and Exhibition (EVS) · doi:10.1109/evs.2013.6914865 · Cited by 17
“Battery Management System (BMS) is an inseparable part of any EV battery, which is responsible for maintaining the battery pack within its normal operating range by predicting the batterys internal states such as State of Charge (SOC), State of Health (SOH), State of Life (SOL1 ), State of Function (SOF), State of Saf…”
BackgroundA Technical Review of BMS Performance Standard for Electric Vehicle Applications in Indonesia
Sutopo, W., Rahmawatie, B., Fahma, F., Nizam, M., Purwanto, A., Louhenapessy, B. B., & Kadir, E. A. (2018) · TELKOMNIKA (Telecommunication Computing Electronics and Control) · doi:10.12928/telkomnika.v16i2.7930 · Cited by 17
“Illustrations of a Battery Management System [3]”
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“ISO and IEC are international standards governing product standards as well as tests related to battery systems [8, 13].”
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“Conventional battery management systems (BMS) in electric and hybrid vehicles are predominantly organized around threshold-based protection using surface-mounted thermistors and simple rule-based logic [9,10].”
Research on optimized SOC estimation algorithm based on extended kalman filter
Yang, B., Li, G., Tang, W., & Li, H. (2022) · Frontiers in Energy Research · doi:10.3389/fenrg.2022.1027439 · Cited by 16
“Common filtering algorithms include Kalman filtering algorithm (KF) (Rakhmatov et al., 2003; Xing et al., 2011), particle filtering (PF)algorithm (Zhou et al., 2016) and synovial observer (Chen et al., 2016; Chen et al., 2017) algorithm.”
MethodAdvanced Battery Management Systems with Integrated Battery Electronics
Eskandari, R., Venugopal, P., & Rietveld, G. (2022) · International Power Electronics and Motion Control Conference (EPE-PEMC) · doi:10.1109/pemc51159.2022.9962868 · Cited by 16
“It is also a determinant of charging and discharging control so it is of utmost importance to be estimated accurately [2], [5].”
BackgroundVerani, A., Rienzo, R. D., Nicodemo, N., Baronti, F., Roncella, R., & Saletti, R. (2023) · Electronics · doi:10.3390/electronics12051232 · Cited by 16
“Such safety functions are accomplished by specific devices, the Battery Management Systems (BMSs) [5–7].”
Fuengwarodsakul, N. H. (2015) · Electrical Engineering · doi:10.1007/s00202-015-0344-3 · Cited by 16
A High-Efficiency Capacitor-Based Battery Equalizer for Electric Vehicles
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Parhizi, M., Pathak, M., & Jain, A. (2020) · Journal of The Electrochemical Society · doi:10.1149/1945-7111/abb34d · Cited by 15
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BackgroundAnalysis and Synthesis of Architectures for Automotive Battery Management Systems
Schärtel, L., Reick, B., Pfeil, M., & Stetter, R. (2022) · Applied Sciences · doi:10.3390/app122110756 · Cited by 15
“Abbreviations The following abbreviations are used in this manuscript: ABS Anti-lock braking system ADAS Advanced Driver Assistant Systems ASIL Automotiv Safety Integrity Level BEV Battery Electric Vehicle BMS Battery Management System CHIL Controller Hardware-in-the-Loop CM Cross-measurement DCU Domain computing unit…”
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“This reduces the electric traction capability until the cooling system brings the temperature of the battery back into the prescribed range [42].”
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Transformer-Based Transfer Learning for Battery State-of-Health Estimation
Giuliano, A., Wu, Y., Yawney, J., & Gadsden, S. A. (2025) · Energies · doi:10.3390/en18205439 · Cited by 14
State of Charge Estimation and State of Health Diagnostic Method Using Multilayer Neural Networks
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“This is because, in the event of undesirable circumstances such as overcharging/heating, these must be detected and corrective actions must be performed automatically through programming systems [11,16].”
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“Although the techniques for SOC and SOH estimation have already been implemented in lithium-ion battery management systems (BMSs) [1].”
MethodSOH estimation for lithium-ion batteries: A cointegration and error correction approach
Kunlong, C., Jiuchun, J., Fangdan, Z., Bingxiang, S., & Yan-ru, Z. (2016) · IEEE Conference on Prognostics and Health Management · doi:10.1109/icphm.2016.7542828 · Cited by 13
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“systematic, and reliable Battery Management System (BMS) is the desideratum for the optimal, credible and economic performance of the battery in BEVs [2].”
MethodInfluentialOn Experiment Design for Parameter Estimation of Equivalent-Circuit Battery Models
Beelen, H. P. G. J., Bergveld, H. J., & Donkers, M. C. F. (2018) · IEEE Conference on Control Technology and Applications (CCTA) · doi:10.1109/ccta.2018.8511529 · Cited by 13
Wind-Fuel-Cell-Solar Hybrid Electric Boat Power Design with MPPT System
Obaid, W., Hamid, A.-K., & Ghenaï, C. (2019) · International Conference on Modeling, Simulation, and Applied Optimization · doi:10.1109/icmsao.2019.8880330 · Cited by 13
“The continuous operation of the boat is significant because some factors like the wind speed and solar irradiance change during the day, therefore, having a real-time battery management system is important to deal with such changes [5].”
BackgroundTudoroiu, N., Zaheeruddin, M., & Tudoroiu, R.-E. (2020) · Energies · doi:10.3390/en13112749 · Cited by 13
Extending Battery Management Systems for Making Informed Decisions on Battery Reuse
Monhof, M., Beverungen, D., Klör, B., & Bräuer, S. (2015) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-18714-3_37 · Cited by 13
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“Since LIBs are now frequently employed as one of the primary power sources, battery management systems have shown to be helpful in controlling and monitoring all of the functions of LIBs [11], [12].”
BackgroundAdvances and Future Trends in Battery Management Systems
Kertész, N., & Szabó, L. (2024) · SMTS · doi:10.3390/engproc2024079066 · Cited by 12
State-of-charge and state-of-health estimating method for lithium-ion batteries
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“Generally, the estimations on battery status are focused on state-of-charge (SOC) and state-of-health (SOH) [13].”
BackgroundNaqvi, S. S. A., Jamil, H., Faseeh, M., Iqbal, N., Khan, S., & Kim, D. (2024) · Internet of Things · doi:10.1016/j.iot.2024.101085 · Cited by 12
A Battery Power Bank with Series-Connected Buck–Boost-Type Battery Power Modules
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Salas-Puente, R., Marzal, S., González‐Medina, R., Figueres, E., & Garcerá, G. (2018) · Energies · doi:10.3390/en11071889 · Cited by 12
“However, the SOL is defined in literature as the remaining time until the battery needs to be replaced [11].”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialNew Cell Balancing Charging System Research for Lithium-ion Batteries
Zun, C. Y., Park, S.-U., & Mok, H.-S. (2020) · Energies · doi:10.3390/en13061393 · Cited by 12
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“Currently, onboard BMS systems primarily serve as general-purpose controllers rather than specialized tools designed to fully optimize battery performance [81].”
Self-Diagnostic Opportunities for Battery Systems in Electric and Hybrid Vehicles
Szürke, S. K., Sütheö, G., Őri, P., & Lakatos, I. (2024) · Machines · doi:10.3390/machines12050324 · Cited by 11
“The performance of a battery can vary significantly under different operating and environmen tal conditions, which presents challenges for the implementation of the BMS [29].”
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Zhang, K., Ma, J., Zhao, X., Liu, X., & Zhang, Y. (2019) · Mathematical Problems in Engineering · doi:10.1155/2019/4961045 · Cited by 11
“One of the most important functions of BMS is state of charge (SOC) estimation, which can improve the control efficiency of energy and extend the usage life of the batteries [8].”
BackgroundMariano, J. D., & Urbanetz, J. (2022) · Frontiers in Energy Research · doi:10.3389/fenrg.2022.831245 · Cited by 11
Remaining Useful Life Prediction of Li-Ion Battery Based on Charge Voltage Characteristics
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Development of battery management systems (BMS) for electric vehicles (EVs) in Malaysia
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“Real-time management systems are important in order to monitor and control the boat’s battery bank and performance according to the measured values [18-20].”
BackgroundChallenges and opportunities to advance manufacturing research for sustainable battery life cycles
Johansson, B., Despeisse, M., Bokrantz, J., Braun, G., Cao, H., Chari, A., Fang, Q., Chávez, C. A. G., Skoogh, A., Söderlund, H., et al. (2024) · Frontiers in Manufacturing Technology · doi:10.3389/fmtec.2024.1360076 · Cited by 11
Tudoroiu, N., Zaheeruddin, M., Tudoroiu, R.-E., Radu, M. S., & Chammas, H. (2023) · Vehicles · doi:10.3390/vehicles5020030 · Cited by 10
Optimal battery charge with safe exploration
Trimboli, M., & Ávila, L. O. (2023) · Expert Systems with Applications · doi:10.1016/j.eswa.2023.121697 · Cited by 10
A Concise Review of Power Batteries and Battery Management Systems for Electric and Hybrid Vehicles
Zhang, Q., Shang, Y., Li, Y., & Zhu, R. (2025) · Energies · doi:10.3390/en18143750 · Cited by 17
Multi-Chemistry Battery Management System for Electric Vehicles
Dikmen, I. C., Yıldıran, N., & Karadağ, T. (2022) · The European Journal of Research and Development · doi:10.56038/ejrnd.v2i4.176 · Cited by 10
On the State of Usability for Lithium–Ion Batteries
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“A low likelihood means that those mechanisms are usually prevented by a battery management system (BMS) or other safety barriers like CIDs, which are usually not prone for faults [17–19].”
Battery charging and discharging kit with DAQ to aid SOC estimation
Usman, A., Pavan Kumar, P., & Divakar, B. P. (2015) · International Conference on Computation of Power, Energy, Information and Communication (ICCPEIC) · doi:10.1109/iccpeic.2015.7259437 · Cited by 10
A Cell-in-the-Loop Approach to Systems Modelling and Simulation of Energy Storage Systems
Marco, J., Kumari, N., Widanage, W. D., & Jones, P. (2015) · Energies · doi:10.3390/en8088244 · Cited by 10
“By assuming a zero initial condition for Equation (8) and that ib1 is constant between sampling intervals Equation (8) is solved for ib1 by the exponential integrator discretisation method [37] and is substituted into Equation (7) to obtain vt.”
BackgroundMethodCalvinus, Y., Wiryanata, F., & Tanujaya, H. (2020) · IOP Conference Series Materials Science and Engineering · doi:10.1088/1757-899x/1007/1/012174 · Cited by 10
Online State-of-Charge Estimation Based on the Gas–Liquid Dynamics Model for Li(NiMnCo)O2 Battery
Jiang, H., Chen, X., Liu, Y., Zhao, Q., Li, H., & Chen, B. (2021) · Energies · doi:10.3390/en14020324 · Cited by 10
“The correct estimation of SOC can not only improve the efficiency of EVs but also protect the battery and increase the battery’s service life, thereby generating economic benefits [3,4].”
BackgroundSizing Scheme of Hybrid Energy Storage System for Electric Vehicle
Shende, V., Singh, K. V., Bansal, H. O., & Singh, D. (2021) · Iranian Journal of Science and Technology Transactions of Electrical Engineering · doi:10.1007/s40998-021-00416-x · Cited by 10
Lithium-Ion Batteries: Thermal Behaviour Investigation of Unbalanced Modules
Capron, O., Samba, A., Omar, N., Coosemans, T., den Bossche, P. V., & Mierlo, J. V. (2015) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su7078374 · Cited by 10
“As mentioned in [19], the series connection of the cells in a module can be used in electric vehicles (EVs) and hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) to allow one to reach the required voltages.”
BackgroundHe, Y., Shen, J.-N., Shen, J.-F., & Ma, Z. (2015) · Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research · doi:10.1021/ie5044049 · Cited by 10
Putera, D. A., Fajri, N., & Alda, T. (2025) · Mechanical Engineering, Science and Technology International Conference (MEST) · doi:10.3390/engproc2025084052 · Cited by 9
Yang, R., García-Fernández, Á. F., & Lee, C.-R. (2025) · Journal of Energy Storage · doi:10.1016/j.est.2025.116097 · Cited by 6
Aery, M., Vashishat, I., Malik, S., Jindal, N., & Singh, M. K. (2025) · IEEE Transactions on Intelligent Transportation Systems · doi:10.1109/tits.2025.3562181 · Cited by 9
“Xing et al. emphasizes the importance of comprehensive life cycle management for EV batteries, particularly in monitoring battery health to prevent risks such as thermal runaway, which can lead to fires [19].”
Wu, T. B., Shang, Z., Tian, X., & Wang, S. (2016) · Energy Policy · doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2016.07.004 · Cited by 9
Krawczyk, P., Kopczyński, A., & Lasocki, J. (2022) · Energies · doi:10.3390/en15124187 · Cited by 9
Comparative Analysis of Lithium-Ion Batteries for Urban Electric/Hybrid Electric Vehicles
Velev, B., Djudzhev, B., Dimitrov, V. V., & Hinov, N. L. (2024) · Batteries · doi:10.3390/batteries10060186 · Cited by 9
Dimitrov, B., Collier, G., & Cruden, A. J. (2019) · World Electric Vehicle Journal · doi:10.3390/wevj10040059 · Cited by 9
Cloud Computing-Based Li-Ion Battery-BMS Design for Constant DC Load Applications
Madhankumar, S., Dharshini, S., Vignesh, N. R., Amrutha, P., & Dhanaselvam, J. (2021) · Advances in intelligent systems and computing · doi:10.1007/978-981-16-5301-8_22 · Cited by 9
Methods for estimating lithium-ion battery state of charge for use in electric vehicles: a review
Gaga, A., Tannouche, A., Mehdaoui, Y., & Hadadi, B. E. (2022) · Energy Harvesting and Systems · doi:10.1515/ehs-2021-0039 · Cited by 9
High-precision voltage measurement IP core for battery management SoC of electric vehicles
Yue, T., Wu, L., Zhang, X., & Tian, G. (2014) · IEEE International Conference on Solid-State and Integrated Circuit Technology · doi:10.1109/icsict.2014.7021570 · Cited by 9
“The basic function of a battery management SoC in BMS is to measure battery parameters, including voltage, current and temperature [5].”
BackgroundYang, H., Qiu, Y., & Guo, X. (2015) · Energies · doi:10.3390/en81112322 · Cited by 9
“In the non-physics-based model estimations, some learning algorithms, such as neural networks [32–34], support vector machines (SVMs) [35,36], RVMs [37], and fuzzy logic [38,39], are applied, in which the measured impedance parameters [12,32] and other characteristic battery parameters (e.g., discharge current [33], t…”
Abbas, M., Kim, E.-S., Kim, S.-K., & Kim, Y.-S. (2016) · Energies · doi:10.3390/en9100812 · Cited by 9
“Thus battery management systems are not interchangeable [18].”
BackgroundHybrid Power System Design for Electric Boat with Solar Irradiance Forcasting
Obaid, W., Hamid, A.-K., & Ghenaï, C. (2018) · International Renewable and Sustainable Energy Conference (IRSEC) · doi:10.1109/irsec.2018.8702854 · Cited by 9
“There are many factors that must be taken into consideration when designing a solar powered boat such as the size of the boat as it should be large enough to fit all the solar panels, solar irradiance continuity is another factor since the irradiance changes according the weather conditions and time of the day, theref…”
BackgroundA maintenance-focused approach to complex system design
Yu, B. Y., Honda, T., Zubair, S. M., Sharqawy, M. H., & Yang, M. C. (2016) · Artificial intelligence for engineering design analysis and manufacturing · doi:10.1017/s089006041600024x · Cited by 8
The application of nimh batteries in a light-duty electric vehicle
Noga, M., & Juda, Z. (2019) · Technical Transactions · doi:10.4467/2353737xct.19.014.10054 · Cited by 8
“This is mainly due to their low price, simple operation and the fact that they do not require battery management systems, which lithium-ion batteries require for safe and trouble-free operation [18].”
BackgroundAn efficient online energy distribution management system based on predictive control
Hong, S., Xu, H., Qin, H., Cheng, Z., Jiang, J., & Li, J. (2022) · Journal of Energy Storage · doi:10.1016/j.est.2022.104532 · Cited by 8
Electrical and Thermal Active Co-Management for Lithium-ion Batteries
Zheng, Z., Liu, Z., Kohtz, S., Wang, P., Li, Y., Fu, W., Miljkovic, N., & Smith, S. T. (2022) · IEEE Transportation Electrification Conference and Expo · doi:10.1109/itec53557.2022.9813807 · Cited by 8
Model-Based Sensor Fault Detection for Lithium-Ion Batteries in Electric Vehicles
Yu, Q., Xiong, R., & Lin, C. W. (2019) · IEEE Vehicular Technology Conference · doi:10.1109/vtcspring.2019.8746512 · Cited by 8
An Analysis of Hybrid/Electric Vehicle Monitoring Systems and Parameters
Drosu, A., Suciu, G. D., Scheianu, A., & Petre, I. (2019) · Electric Vehicles International Conference (EV) · doi:10.1109/ev.2019.8892923 · Cited by 8
“Battery Management System (BMS) represents an important component of the electric and hybrid vehicles and has the main scope to ensure safety and reliability of the battery functioning [1].”
BackgroundGundermann, J., Kolesnikov, A., Cameron, M., & Blochwitz, T. (2019) · Linköping electronic conference proceedings · doi:10.3384/ecp18148161 · Cited by 8
Metadata
- Authors
- Xing, Y., Ma, E. W. M., Tsui, K. L., & Pecht, M.
- Affiliations
- City University of Hong Kong (HK)
- Corresponding author
- Pecht, Michael
- Venue
- Energies
- Publisher
- MDPI AG
- Published
- 2011-10-31
- Volume
- 4
- Issue
- 11
- Pages
- 1840-1857
- ISSN
- 1996-1073 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2095027161
- Cited by
- 540
- References
- 33
- Citations by year
- 2026: 35 · 2025: 48 · 2024: 50 · 2023: 53 · 2022: 43 · 2021: 63 · 2020: 37 · 2019: 43 · 2018: 31 · 2017: 37 · 2016: 27 · 2015: 26 · 2014: 24 · 2013: 18 · 2012: 5
- FWCI
- 30.79
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Energies (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- CityU Scholars (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Funders
- City University of Hong Kong
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Automotive Engineering › Battery Modeling and Management
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Automotive Engineering › Electric and Hybrid Vehicle Technologies
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Electrical and Electronic Engineering › Advancements in Battery Materials
- Keywords
- battery management systems, electric vehicles, hybrid electric vehicles, state of charge estimation, state of health estimation, battery state monitoring, charge control, battery balancing
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