The Significance and Insignificance of Carbon Nanotube-Induced Inflammation
Open accessAbstract
In the present review article immune responses induced by carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are addressed. As inhalation is considered to be the primary entry route, and concern has been raised by similar high aspect ratio materials, the main focus lies on immune responses upon pulmonary exposure. Inflammation-related findings from both in vivo studies and in vitro models are reviewed, and the major responsible characteristics, which may drive CNT-induced inflammation in the lung, are discussed. In a second part, responses upon intentional administration of CNTs via subcutaneous and intravenous application are addressed, including their potential benefits and drawbacks for immunotherapy. Finally, the gastrointestinal tract as an alternative exposure route is briefly discussed. While there are many studies identifying numerous other factors involved in CNT-driven toxicity, e.g., cytotoxicity, oxidative stress, and genotoxicity, the focus of this review was kept solely on CNT-induced inflammation. Overall the literature has shown that CNTs are able to induce inflammation, which in some cases was a particularly robust response coinciding with the development of pro-fibrotic conditions. In the majority of cases the greatest inflammatory responses were associated with CNTs of considerable length and a high aspect ratio, accompanied by other factors like dispersion and sample purity.
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Macrophages tend to stall uptake of fibres longer than their own size if the cell membrane cannot sufficiently be deformed to enclose the whole fibre, leaving the cell penetrated (frustrated phagocytosis).
“Macrophages tend to stall the uptake of fibres longer than their own size if the cell membrane cannot sufficiently be deformed to enclose the whole fibre. This so-called ‘frustrated phagocytosis’ leaves the cell in a penetrated state [11, 12].”
From Macrophages bend long fibres with flexural rigidity lower than 3 mN·nm2 to avoid frustrated phagocytosis (2026) · cites this paper as [11]
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- Authors
- Boyles, M., Stoehr, L., Schlinkert, P., Himly, M., & Duschl, A.
- Affiliations
- University of Salzburg (AT)
- Grimm Aerosol Technik (Germany) (DE)
- Corresponding author
- Boyles, Matthew
- Venue
- Fibers
- Publisher
- MDPI AG
- Published
- 2014-02-19
- Volume
- 2
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 45-74
- ISSN
- 2079-6439 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W1986736946
- Cited by
- 22
- References
- 154
- Citations by year
- 2026: 2 · 2025: 2 · 2024: 1 · 2023: 1 · 2022: 2 · 2021: 2 · 2020: 2 · 2018: 1 · 2017: 5 · 2016: 4
- FWCI
- 1.56
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Fibers (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Edinburgh Napier Research Repository (Edinburgh Napier University) (publishedVersion, other-oa)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Funders
- European Commission (264506)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Biomedical Engineering › Graphene and Nanomaterials Applications
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Pulmonary and Respiratory Medicine › Occupational and environmental lung diseases
- Life Sciences › Immunology and Microbiology › Immunology › Immunotoxicology and immune responses
- Keywords
- carbon nanotubes, pulmonary exposure, inhalation, immune response, high aspect ratio nanomaterials, nanotube length, nanotube dispersion, sample purity, immunotherapy, gastrointestinal exposure, pulmonary fibrosis, nanoparticle toxicity
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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