From Industrial Food Waste to Bioactive Ingredients: A Review on the Sustainable Management and Transformation of Plant-Derived Food Waste

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The carbon footprint of food waste decomposition and incineration was estimated at 3.3 billion tons of CO2 equivalent per year, corresponding to 8-10% of global greenhouse gas emissions.

“Until recently, the carbon footprint of food waste decomposition and incineration was estimated at 3.3 billion tons of CO2 equivalent per year, which corresponds to 8–10% of global greenhouse gas emissions [80].”

• cites [80] (2023, April 05). Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)—Food Wastage Footprint 2021: A Summary Report. Available online: https://www.fao.org/news/story/en/item/196402/icode/.Not checked yet

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In industrialized countries, food waste accounts for approximately 56% of global food waste and is obtained via the latter stages of the supply chain, particularly during processing and consumption.

“In industrialized countries, food waste, which accounts for approximately 56% of global food waste, is obtained via the latter stages of the supply chain, particularly during processing and consumption [12].”

• cites [12] Ishangulyyev, R., Kim, S., and Lee, S.H. (2019). Understanding Food Loss and Waste—Why Are We Losing and Wasting Food?. Foods, 8. sourceNot checked yet

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931 million tons of food waste were produced in 2021 across all stages of the food supply chain.

“According to the most recent “Food Waste Index Report” published by UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme), 931 million tons of food waste were produced in 2021 across all stages of food supply chain: production, distribution, retail, markets, and domestic consumption [3].”

• cites [3] U.N (2023, April 04). UNEP Food Waste Index Report 2021. Available online: http://www.unep.org/resources/report/unep-food-waste-index-report-2021.Not checked yet

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Currently, a large part of all food wastage undergoes disposal treatments, while only a low percentage is reused or recycled.

“Currently, a large part of all food wastage undergoes disposal treatments, while only a low percentage is reused or recycled [78].”

• cites [78] Fang, 2023, Closing the Food Waste Loop: Analysis of the Agronomic Performance and Potential of Food Waste Disposal Products, J. Clean. Prod. sourceNot checked yet

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If waste products are intended to be reused by the same company or other organizations, they cannot be considered waste but instead become a by-product, often with a market value.

“On the other hand, if these waste products are intended to be reused by the same company or other organizations, they cannot be considered waste but instead become a by-product, often with a market value [7].”

• cites [7] Stangherlin, 2021, Upcycled By-Product Use in Agri-Food Systems from a Consumer Perspective: A Review of What We Know, and What Is Missing, Technol. Forecast. Soc. Chang. sourceNot checked yet

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The beverage industry produces about 26% of industrial food waste, followed by the ice cream industry (21.3%), fruit and vegetable production (14.8%), manufacture of grain and starch products (12.9%), and meat production (8%).

“the beverage industry produces about 26% of industrial food waste, followed by the ice cream industry (21.3%), fruit and vegetable production (14.8%), manufacture of grain and starch products (12.9%), and meat production (8%) [11].”

• cites [11] Baiano, 2014, Recovery of Biomolecules from Food Wastes—A Review, Molecules sourceNot checked yet

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Fruits and vegetables waste generates a substantial environmental impact in terms of carbon footprint during treatment in industrialized Asia (China, Japan, Republic of Korea), Europe, and Latin America, while wastage of cereals, especially straw and bran rice, represents a vicious cycle of rice production and waste incineration in Asian countries.

“Geographically fruits and vegetables waste generates a substantial impact on the environment, in terms of carbon footprint during their treatment, in industrialized Asia (China, Japan, Republic of Korea), Europe, and Latin America, while wastage of cereals, especially straw and bran rice, represents a vicious cycle of rice production and waste incineration in Asian countries [82].”

• cites [82] Gadde, 2009, Air Pollutant Emissions from Rice Straw Open Field Burning in India, Thailand and the Philippines, Environ. Pollut. sourceNot checked yet

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Approximately one-third of the food produced for human consumption is wasted.

“According to the United Nations, approximately one-third of the food produced for human consumption is wasted.”

• Also stated in: § 1. Introduction · hedged

  “approximately 1 billion tons of food waste are annually produced, which roughly corresponds to one-third of the food produced for human consumption [10].”

• cites [10] Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) (2023, April 04). Global Food Losses and Food Waste. Available online: https://www.fao.org/3/mb060e/mb060e00.htm.Not checked yet

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Soil contaminated with food waste showed a sevenfold increase in microscopic fungi, and phytotoxic fungi of the genus Alternaria were found in pea seedlings (Pisum sativum L.); soil contamination is linked to alteration of the species composition of the microbial population in the soil.

“In this regard, Mosina et al. studied the agro-ecological and geochemical characteristics of the contaminated soil with food waste. The number of microscopic fungi in the contaminated soil increased seven times, and the phytotoxic fungi of the genus Alternaria were found in pea seedlings (Pisum sativum L.). Moreover, soil contamination is linked to the alteration of the species composition of the”

• cites [81] Mosina, 2020, Municipal Solid Waste Landfills as a Source of Mycotoxins Contamination in Soil, IOP Conf. Ser. Earth Environ. Sci. sourceNot checked yet

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Food waste treatment and disposal are carried out primarily via dumps and landfills, thermal treatment (incineration, gasification, pyrolysis, open burning), and biological waste treatment (composting and anaerobic digestion).

“Food waste treatment and disposal are carried out primarily via one of these methods: dumps and landfills, thermal treatment (incineration, gasification, and pyrolysis, open burning), and biological waste treatment (composting and anaerobic digestion) [79].”

• cites [79] Micale, 2015, Life Cycle Analysis of Incineration Compared to Anaerobic Digestion Followed by Composting for Managing Organic Waste: The Influence of System Components for an Italian District, Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. sourceNot checked yet

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Food waste reduction was ranked as the 3rd most important of 100 solutions required to reduce climate change.

“A global research study published by Paul Hawken ranked food waste reduction as the 3rd most important of 100 solutions required to reduce climate change [77].”

• cites [77] Hawken, P. (2017). Drawdown: The Most Comprehensive Plan Ever Proposed to Reverse Global Warming a Book by Paul Hawken, Penguin.Not checked yet

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Food waste was identified as a priority area by the European Commission for global sustainable development through the first Circular Economy Action Plan in 2015.

“Through adopting the first Circular Economy Action Plan in 2015, food waste was identified as a priority area by the European Commission for global sustainable development [1].”

• cites [1] European Union (EU) (2023, April 04). Closing the Loop—An EU Action Plan for the Circular Economy. Available online: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A52015DC0614.Not checked yet

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Incineration possesses the lowest life cycle costs (LCC) (80 euro/ton), while landfilling is the most expensive option (140 euro/ton).

“Besides the climatic aspect, it is also necessary to consider the economic cost for the companies to treat food waste: incineration possesses the lowest life cycle costs (LCC) (80 euro/ton), while landfilling is the most expensive option (140 euro/ton) [83].”

• cites [83] Slorach, 2019, Environmental and Economic Implications of Recovering Resources from Food Waste in a Circular Economy, Sci. Total Environ. sourceNot checked yet

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About 38% of food waste occurs during food processing (unavoidable food waste).

“About 38% of this waste occurs during food processing (unavoidable food waste):”

• cites [11] Baiano, 2014, Recovery of Biomolecules from Food Wastes—A Review, Molecules sourceNot checked yet

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European Union rules on waste and by-product operate under Directive 2008/98.

“European Union rules on waste and by-product operate under Directive 2008/98 [92].”

• cites [92] European Union (EU) (2008). Directive 2008/98/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 19 November 2008 on Waste and Repealing Certain Directives (Text with EEA Relevance), European Union (EU).Not checked yet

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The GRI guidelines became the common standards followed in different countries.

“Several studies highlighted that the GRI guidelines became the common standards followed in different countries [67,68].”

• cites [67] (2023, April 02). The KPMG Survey of Sustainability Reporting 2020—KPMG Global. Available online: https://kpmg.com/xx/en/home/insights/2020/11/the-time-has-come-survey-of-sustainability-reporting.html.Not checked yet

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• cites [68] Marimon, 2012, The Worldwide Diffusion of the Global Reporting Initiative: What Is the Point?, J. Clean. Prod. sourceNot checked yet

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Almost half of the examined corporate reports state that they use the GRI guidelines.

“Roca et al. (2011) found that almost half of the examined corporate reports state that they use the GRI guidelines [69].”

• cites [69] Roca, 2012, An Analysis of Indicators Disclosed in Corporate Sustainability Reports, J. Clean. Prod. sourceNot checked yet

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The absence of pathogens and contaminants, lower moisture content, and nutrient and bioactive compound availability should represent a general quality descriptor for by-products.

“However, the absence of pathogens and contaminants, lower moisture content, and nutrient and bioactive compound availability should represent a general quality descriptor [102].”

• cites [102] Walker, P. (2000). Food Waste to Animal Feed, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.Not checked yet

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• AssumptionRests on an assumption: It may be impossible to establish generic uniform standards of quality for by-products.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Starting from 2014, the European Commission examined 21 companies that adopted circular economy measures and all these companies witnessed net job creation.

“Starting from 2014, European Commission examined 21 companies that adopted circular economy measures and showed that all these companies witnessed net job creation.”

• cites [90] European Commission (EC) (2023, April 06). Cases of Implementing Resource Efficient Policies by the EU Industry (2014). Available online: https://ec.europa.eu/environment/enveco/resource_efficiency/.Not checked yet

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Disclosing fundamental aspects of sustainability reporting processes enhances transparency about organizational performance.

“As reiterated by Junior et al. (2014), disclosing fundamental aspects of sustainability reporting processes enhances transparency about organizational performance [56].”

• cites [56] Junior, 2014, Sustainability Reporting and Assurance: A Historical Analysis on a World-Wide Phenomenon, J. Bus. Ethics sourceNot checked yet

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According to the latest European management directive, prevention of food waste production is the best option.

“Although the best option is the prevention of food waste production, according to the latest European management directive, the valorization of food waste can be considered one of the best methods [92].”

• cites [92] European Union (EU) (2008). Directive 2008/98/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 19 November 2008 on Waste and Repealing Certain Directives (Text with EEA Relevance), European Union (EU).Not checked yet

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The Environmental GRI topic GRI 306 (waste) includes specific disclosures and KPIs to report companies' impacts and performances regarding waste management, waste generation, and use of recycled input materials.

“Considering the food waste themes present in the agri-food sector, the Environmental GRI topic GRI 306 (waste) includes specific disclosures and KPIs to report companies’ impacts and performances. These guidelines provide insight into the level of control that the organization assumes for waste management, waste generation, and use of recycled input materials [71].”

• cites [71] (2023, April 05). GRI—Topic Standard for Waste. Available online: https://www.globalreporting.org/standards/standards-development/topic-standard-for-waste/.Not checked yet

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Choosing the right indicators to report corporate improvement is very challenging due to a lack of a standardized set of both KPIs and sustainability reporting rules.

“However, it must be emphasized that choosing the right indicators to report corporate improvement is very challenging due to a lack of a standardized set of both KPIs and sustainability reporting rules [59].”

• cites [59] Hester, 2017, A Method for Key Performance Indicator Assessment in Manufacturing Organizations, Int. J. Oper. Res.Not checked yet

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Globally, the financial costs of food wastage treatment amount to approximately 1 trillion US dollars each year, environmental costs reach around 700 billion dollars, and social costs reach around 900 billion dollars.

“Globally, the financial costs of food wastage treatment amount to approximately 1 trillion dollars (US) each year (FAO), which is roughly equivalent to Spain’s gross domestic product, without considering the costs related to environmental and social impacts. Environmental costs reach around 700 billion and social costs reach around 900 billion dollars; these costs include loss of livelihoods due”

• cites [84] (2023, April 05). Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)—Sustainability Pathways: Food Loss and Waste. Available online: https://www.fao.org/nr/sustainability/food-loss-and-waste/en/.Not checked yet

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The Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) is the most commonly used framework that provides a set of KPIs for sustainability reporting, adoptable globally by companies and non-corporate organizations.

“Given the scenario, the Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) stood out in recent years and remains the most commonly used framework that provides a set of KPIs for sustainability reporting, which can be adopted on a global scale by companies and non-corporate organizations [65,66].”

• cites [65] Avrampou, 2019, Advancing the Sustainable Development Goals: Evidence from Leading European Banks, Sustain. Dev. sourceNot checked yet

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• cites [66] Girella, 2019, Reporting on Sustainable Development: A Comparison of Three Italian Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises, Corp. Soc. Responsib. Environ. Manag. sourceNot checked yet

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Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Recovery of compounds from fruit and vegetable peels and pomace or bran cereals to produce value-added products for nutraceutical and cosmetic applications through green chemistry can provide a sustainable basis for industries and stimulate research development.

“In summary, the recovery of these compounds from fruits and vegetables peels and pomace or bran cereals to produce value-added products for the nutraceutical and cosmetic applications, which occurs through exploiting the principles of green chemistry, can provide a sustainable basis for industries and stimulate research development.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Previous studies found a significant increase in the quality and quantity of disclosure after the EU Directive.

“Previous studies compared sustainability reports issued before and after the EU Directive. Most of them found a significant increase in the quality and quantity of disclosure [61,62,63].”

• cites [61] Leopizzi, 2020, Nonfinancial Risk Disclosure: The “State of the Art” of Italian Companies, Corp. Soc. Responsib. Environ. Manag. sourceNot checked yet

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• cites [62] Mion, G., and Loza Adaui, C.R. (2019). Mandatory Nonfinancial Disclosure and Its Consequences on the Sustainability Reporting Quality of Italian and German Companies. Sustainability, 11. sourceNot checked yet

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• cites [63] Nicolò, G., Zanellato, G., and Tiron-Tudor, A. (2020). Integrated Reporting and European State-Owned Enterprises: A Disclosure Analysis Pre and Post 2014/95/EU. Sustainability, 12. sourceNot checked yet

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The GRI Sustainability Reporting Standards consist of a set of 36 interconnected standards: three universal standards (GRI 101, 102, 103) and 33 topic-specific standards divided into Economic (GRI 200), Environmental (GRI 300), and Social (GRI 400) series.

“The GRI Sustainability Reporting Standards place emphasis on sustainability matters that consist of a set of 36 interconnected standards applicable to all organizations. This set includes a modular system of indicators, which are organized into three universal standards (GRI 101: Foundation, GRI 102: General Disclosures, and GRI 103: Management Approach) and 33 topic-specific standards, as well as”

• cites [70] (2023, April 02). GRI—Standards. Available online: https://www.globalreporting.org/standards/.Not checked yet

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European companies in the agrifood sector could save up to 10 billion euros annually through introducing innovations that reduce waste in the food chain.

“European companies in the agrifood sector could save up to 10 billion euros annually through introducing innovations that reduce waste in the food chain [87].”

• cites [87] Rabobank (2023, April 05). Who’s Investing in Reducing Food Waste?. Available online: https://corporate-website-nginx.apps.internal/en/about-rabobank/background-stories/food-agribusiness/whos-investing-in-reducing-food-waste.html.Not checked yet

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The first and second criteria for by-product recognition can be easily achieved primarily as a result of historical use.

“While the first and second criteria can be easily achieved, primarily as a result of historical use, the quality standard of the by-product was not described because it may be impossible to establish generical uniform standards of quality.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In Europe alone, investing and adopting circular economy principles could generate a net economic benefit of 1.8 trillion euros for manufacturing companies by 2030.

“A report from McKinsey suggested that, in Europe alone, investing and adopting circular economy principles could generate a net economic benefit of 1.8 trillion euros for manufacturing companies by 2030 [85].”

• cites [85] McKinsey Sustainability (2023, April 05). Economy Opportunity. Available online: https://www.mckinsey.com/capabilities/sustainability/our-insights/europes-circular-economy-opportunity.Not checked yet

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The EU Directive 2014/95/EU on the disclosure of Non-Financial Information set a clear course toward transparency and accountability on social and environmental issues.

“The introduction of the EU Directive 2014/95/EU on the disclosure of Non-Financial Information (NFI) set a clear course toward transparency and accountability on social and environmental issues [60].”

• cites [60] European Union (EU) (2023, April 01). Directive 2014/95/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 22 October 2014. Available online: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A32014L0095.Not checked yet

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For every 1 dollar invested in reducing food waste, companies could save 14 dollars or more in operating costs, according to a global study.

“a global study indicates that companies could save 14 dollars or more in operating costs for every 1 dollar invested in reducing food waste [86].”

• cites [86] (2023, April 05). Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)—News Article: Global Call for Zero Tolerance on Food Loss and Waste. Available online: https://www.fao.org/news/story/en/item/1038090/icode/.Not checked yet

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Sustainability and performance are related aspects of the success of a company.

“According to Alshehhi et al., sustainability and performance are related aspects of the success of a company [50].”

• cites [50] Alshehhi, A., Nobanee, H., and Khare, N. (2018). The Impact of Sustainability Practices on Corporate Financial Performance: Literature Trends and Future Research Potential. Sustainability, 10. sourceNot checked yet

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More than 800 million people across the globe suffer from hunger.

“more than 800 million people across the globe suffer from hunger [91].”

• cites [91] World Food Programme (WFD) (2023, April 06). Ending Hunger. Available online: https://www.wfp.org/ending-hunger.Not checked yet

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In 2021, total private investment in food waste technology solutions reached 1.9 billion dollars, according to the ReFED Food Waste Capital Tracker database.

“in 2021, total private investment in food waste technology solutions reached 1.9 billion dollars [88].”

• cites [88] ReFED (2023, April 05). Food Waste Monitor. Available online: https://insights-engine.refed.org/food-waste-monitor?view=overview&year=2019.Not checked yet

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Sustainability reporting can decrease information asymmetries between companies and relevant stakeholders.

“Today, sustainability reporting can decrease the so-called “information asymmetries” between companies and relevant stakeholders [57].”

• cites [57] Montiel, 2012, Using Private Management Standard Certification to Reduce Information Asymmetries in Corrupt Environments, Strateg. Manag. J. sourceNot checked yet

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Directive 2008/98 establishes a legal framework for preventing waste in the EU and protecting public health and the environment through measures based on circular economy principles.

“The scope of this directive, which was adopted on 19 November 2008, is to establish a legal framework for preventing waste in the EU and protecting public health and the environment through promoting a package of measures based on circular economy principles.”

• cites [92] European Union (EU) (2008). Directive 2008/98/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 19 November 2008 on Waste and Repealing Certain Directives (Text with EEA Relevance), European Union (EU).Not checked yet

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Converting unavoidable food waste into a by-product represents the most promising pathway to achieve the zero-waste goal and accelerate the transition of the food industry to a sustainable and circular economy.

“While prevention is not possible, converting unavoidable food waste into a by-product represents the most promising pathway to achieve the zero-waste goal and accelerate the transition of the food industry to a sustainable and circular economy.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Prevention of food waste is not always possible.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The expansion of reuse and remanufacturing could create up to 3 million extra jobs in the European Union by 2030, which is three times more than in the actual business scenario.

“The expansion of “reuse and remanufacturing” could create up to 3 million extra jobs in the European Union by 2030, which is three times more than in the actual business scenario [89].”

• cites [89] WRAP (2023, April 05). Employment and the Circular Economy. Available online: https://wrap.org.uk/resources/report/employment-and-circular-economy.Not checked yet

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According to the latest European management directive, valorization of food waste can be considered one of the best methods.

“Although the best option is the prevention of food waste production, according to the latest European management directive, the valorization of food waste can be considered one of the best methods [92].”

• cites [92] European Union (EU) (2008). Directive 2008/98/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 19 November 2008 on Waste and Repealing Certain Directives (Text with EEA Relevance), European Union (EU).Not checked yet

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Waste issues represent the principal environmental KPIs that influence the creation of value.

“Hristov et al. (2019) suggest that waste issues represent the principal environmental KPIs that influence the creation of value [76].”

• cites [76] Hristov, I., and Chirico, A. (2019). The Role of Sustainability Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) in Implementing Sustainable Strategies. Sustainability, 11. sourceNot checked yet

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Oat milk quickly became the plant-based milk of choice, recording a global market size of approximately 2.23 billion US dollars in 2020.

“Among the various plant-based alternatives, oat milk quickly became the plant-based milk of choice, recording a global market size of approximately 2.23 billion dollars (US) in 2020 [144].”

• cites [144] (2023, April 15). Oat Milk Market Size & Share Report, 2020–2028. Available online: https://www.grandviewresearch.com/industry-analysis/oat-milk-market.Not checked yet

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The European Commission proposed a target for food waste reduction as a key action under the forthcoming EU Farm-to-Fork Strategy.

“The European Commission proposed a target for food waste reduction as a key action under the forthcoming EU Farm-to-Fork Strategy [106].”

• cites [106] European Commission (EC) (2023, April 06). Farm to Fork Strategy. Available online: https://food.ec.europa.eu/horizontal-topics/farm-fork-strategy_en.Not checked yet

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The scale-up of extraction processes remains a critical but often demanding step for the development of value-added products.

“The scale-up of the extraction processes remains a critical but often demanding step for the development of value-added products.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Managing waste materials derived from fruits, vegetables, and cereals and making them exploitable in cosmetic and nutraceutical applications could represent a valuable and green strategy.

“Managing these waste materials derived from fruits, vegetables, and cereals and making them exploitable in cosmetic and nutraceutical applications could represent a valuable and green strategy [113] (Figure 3).”

• cites [113] Montenegro, 2021, Fruit and Vegetable Processing Wastes as Natural Sources of Antioxidant-Rich Extracts: Evaluation of Advanced Extraction Technologies by Surface Response Methodology, J. Environ. Chem. Eng. sourceNot checked yet

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The Waste Framework Directive aims to promote a circular economy in which waste is minimized, resources are conserved, and environmental protection is prioritized.

“Overall, the Waste Framework Directive aims to promote a circular economy in which waste is minimized, resources are conserved, and environmental protection is prioritized.”

• cites [92] European Union (EU) (2008). Directive 2008/98/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 19 November 2008 on Waste and Repealing Certain Directives (Text with EEA Relevance), European Union (EU).Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Typically, oat-processed material comprises 10-45% proteins and 10-50% dietary fibers.

“Typically, oat-processed material comprises 10–45% proteins and 10–50% dietary fibers [117,118,119].”

• cites [117] Meyet, R.A.H., Zhou, L., Cheng, R., and Campbell, K. Method for Preparing Oat Protein Composition from Oat Milk Co-Products. (2022144450A2), WO Patent.Not checked yet

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• cites [118] Plant Based Foods|Plant Based Ingredients (2023, April 16). SunOpta. Available online: https://www.sunopta.com/plant-based-ingredients/.Not checked yet

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• cites [119] Upcycled Ingredients (2023, April 16). Renewal Mill. Available online: https://www.renewalmill.com/pages/upcycled-ingredients.Not checked yet

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Through smart specializations such as LIFE and Horizon Europe, the Action Plan encourages innovation to reduce food waste and improve resource efficiency, including supporting research into new technologies and business models for European businesses.

“Through smart specializations, such as LIFE and Horizon Europe, the Action Plan encourages innovation to reduce food waste and improve resource efficiency. This approach includes supporting research into and development of new technologies and business models with the aim of creating solutions for European businesses [107,108].”

• cites [107] European Commission (EC) (2023, April 06). Horizon Europe, Research and Innovation. Available online: https://research-and-innovation.ec.europa.eu/funding/funding-opportunities/funding-programmes-and-open-calls/horizon-europe_en.Not checked yet

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• cites [108] European Commission (EC) (2023, April 06). LIFE Programme, European Climate, Infrastructure and Environment Executive Agency. Available online: https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_21_6178.Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Oat by-products have a favorable protein composition and provide valuable nutrients for human consumption, such as dietary fiber, especially β-glucan, which remain unexploited in the soaking process.

“In the context of the circular economy, as often reported in the literature, oat by-products have a favorable protein composition and provide other valuable nutrients for human consumption, such as dietary fiber, especially β-glucan, which remain unexploited in the soaking process [145].”

• cites [145] Butt, 2008, Oat: Unique among the Cereals, Eur. J. Nutr. sourceNot checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

There is a wide range of available by-products stemming from different food industrial sectors in both the vegetable and animal worlds.

“There is a wide range of available by-products stemming from different food industrial sectors that can be found in both the vegetable and animal worlds [111,112].”

• cites [111] 2016, Seeds Recovered from Industry By-Products of Nine Fruit Species with a High Potential Utility as a Source of Unconventional Oil for Biodiesel and Cosmetic and Pharmaceutical Sectors, Ind. Crops Prod. sourceNot checked yet

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• cites [112] Pinela, J., de la Fuente, B., Rodrigues, M., Pires, T.C.S.P., Mandim, F., Almeida, A., Dias, M.I., Caleja, C., and Barros, L. (2023). Upcycling Fish By-Products into Bioactive Fish Oil: The Suitability of Microwave-Assisted Extraction. Biomolecules, 13. sourceNot checked yet

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May combine two claims.

This upcycled ingredient solution offers dietary fiber and proteins three and two times greater, respectively, than conventional wheat flour.

“This upcycled ingredient solution offers an amount of dietary fiber and proteins three and two times greater, respectively, than conventional wheat flour [116].”

• cites [116] McHugh, T.H., Bustillos, R.D.A., Olson, D.A., Pan, Z., Kurzrock, D.J., and Schwartz, J.L. Intermittent Infrared Drying for Brewery-Spent Grain. (20190301797A1), U.S. Patent.Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

According to the waste hierarchy, preventing waste is the preferred option and sending waste to landfills should be the last resort.

“Indeed, according to the five steps of the “waste hierarchy” proposed in the same Directive, preventing waste is the preferred option, and sending waste to landfills should be the last resort.”

• cites [92] European Union (EU) (2008). Directive 2008/98/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 19 November 2008 on Waste and Repealing Certain Directives (Text with EEA Relevance), European Union (EU).Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Since 2019, an American food company saved 79,000 kg of pressed vegetables from juice manufacturing.

“Since 2019, an American food company saved 79,000 kg of pressed vegetables from juice manufacturing.”

• cites [114] Grandes Navarro, J.P., Sarmiento Bolaños, F.G., and Puente, R. (2022). Plan de Negocio Para el Desarrollo de Productos Saludables a Base de Proteína Vegetal, Para el Mercado Estadounidense. [Diploma Thesis, ESPAE-ESPOL].Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The Circular Economy Action Plan was approved in 2020 and described by the European Commission as one of the main building blocks of the European Green Deal.

“The second document is the CEAP, which was approved in 2020 and described by the European Commission as “one of the main building blocks of the European Green Deal” [105].”

• cites [105] European Union (EU) (2023, April 06). A New Circular Economy Action Plan for a Cleaner and More Competitive Europe. Available online: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?qid=1583933814386&uri=COM:2020:98:FIN.Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The Circular Economy Action Plan recognizes the significant impact of food waste on the environment and society and aims to tackle it through various measures.

“The CEAP recognizes the significant impact of food waste on the environment and society and aims to tackle it through various measures.”

• cites [105] European Union (EU) (2023, April 06). A New Circular Economy Action Plan for a Cleaner and More Competitive Europe. Available online: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?qid=1583933814386&uri=COM:2020:98:FIN.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The European Green Deal is a framework document adopted in 2019 with the overarching aim of making the European Union climate neutral by 2050 and halting biodiversity loss through initiatives in various sectors, including food waste.

“The EGD is a framework document adopted in 2019 with the overarching aim of making the European Union climate neutral by 2050 and halting biodiversity loss through initiatives in various sectors, including food waste [104].”

• cites [104] European Commission (EC) (2023, April 06). A European Green Deal. Available online: https://commission.europa.eu/strategy-and-policy/priorities-2019-2024/european-green-deal_en.Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

According to the amended Waste Framework Directive, each Member State shall monitor the implementation of their prevention measure by reporting the level of food waste.

“According to the relative provisions in the amended Waste Framework Directive, each Member State shall monitor the implementation of their prevention measure by reporting the level of food waste, thus favoring the generation of by-products rather than waste.”

• cites [92] European Union (EU) (2008). Directive 2008/98/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 19 November 2008 on Waste and Repealing Certain Directives (Text with EEA Relevance), European Union (EU).Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The Farm-to-Fork Strategy recognizes the inextricable links between a sustainable food system and healthy people, healthy societies, and a healthy planet.

“The Farm-to-Fork Strategy recognizes the inextricable links between a sustainable food system and healthy people, healthy societies, and a healthy planet.”

• cites [106] European Commission (EC) (2023, April 06). Farm to Fork Strategy. Available online: https://food.ec.europa.eu/horizontal-topics/farm-fork-strategy_en.Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The EU Platform on Food Loss and Food Waste in 2018 introduced obligations and measures for Member States to prevent waste generation and loss.

“The EU Platform on Food Loss and Food Waste in 2018, which was published following the actual Waste Directive, introduced obligations and measures for the Member States to prevent waste generation and loss [103].”

• cites [103] European Union (EU) (2023, April 06). Directive (EU) 2018/851 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 30 May 2018 Amending Directive 2008/98/EC on Waste. Available online: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/dir/2018/851/oj?locale=en.Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The reuse of spent grains such as barley, rye, and wheat, and their by-products such as germ or outer layers, represents a new frontier for modern food companies intending to develop value-added products, especially in the bakery sector.

“The reuse of spent grains, such as barley, rye and wheat, and their by-products, such as germ or outer layers, represents a new frontier for modern food companies that intend to develop value-added products, especially in the bakery sector, in an innovative and sustainable way [137].”

• cites [137] Luithui, 2019, Cereal By-Products as an Important Functional Ingredient: Effect of Processing, J. Food Sci. Technol. sourceNot checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The regulation's target is reducing wastage by 50% within production and supply chains by 2030 as a contribution to meeting the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals.

“The regulation’s target is reducing wastage by 50% within production and supply chains by 2030 as a contribution to meeting the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals.”

• cites [103] European Union (EU) (2023, April 06). Directive (EU) 2018/851 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 30 May 2018 Amending Directive 2008/98/EC on Waste. Available online: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/dir/2018/851/oj?locale=en.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Few published works deal with the conversion of food waste extracts into raw materials suitable to be formulated into nutraceuticals or cosmetic products, and this scientific literature is reported at a laboratory level.

“Few published works deal with the conversion of food waste extracts into raw materials suitable to be formulated into nutraceuticals or cosmetic products [109,110]. However, this scientific literature is reported at a laboratory level.”

• cites [109] Sarangi, 2023, Food and Fruit Waste Valorisation for Pectin Recovery: Recent Process Technologies and Future Prospects, Int. J. Biol. Macromol. sourceNot checked yet

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• cites [110] Barbulova, 2015, New Trends in Cosmetics: By-Products of Plant Origin and Their Potential Use as Cosmetic Active Ingredients, Cosmetics sourceNot checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Moringa seed cake is suitable for the development of personal care products, skincare products, emulsions, gels, lotions, sticks, or powders.

“The seed cake is also suitable for the development of personal care products, such as detergents; skincare products, such as creams; oil-in-water and water-in-oil emulsions; multiple emulsions; gels, lotions; sticks; or powders.”

• cites [128] Dodinet, E., and Bourgeteau, V. Extract of MORINGA Peregrina Seed Cake, Method for Obtaining Same and Use Thereof in Cosmetic or Nutricosmetic Compositions. (2021274083B2), AU Patent.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Overall, 30-50% of mango fruit is disposed of, mainly without treatment, or becomes feed for animals.

“Overall, 30–50% of the fruit is disposed of, mainly without treatment, or becomes feed for animals.”

• cites [163] Mwaurah, 2020, Physicochemical Characteristics, Bioactive Compounds and Industrial Applications of Mango Kernel and Its Products: A Review, Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf. sourceNot checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In a recent patent, extracts of Agave tequilana were proposed for hair care applications.

“In a recent patent, extracts of Agave tequilana were proposed for hair care applications [123].”

• cites [123] Laperdrix, C., Lubrano, C., and Zozine, S. (2018). Use of Extracts of Agave for a Hair Application. (2021401730A1), U.S. Patent.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Mango kernel contains approximately 34% starch, of which about 20% is highly rich in tannin.

“In addition to antioxidants, the kernel contains approximately 34% starch, of which about 20% is highly rich in tannin [164]”

• cites [164] Mieles-Gómez, L., Quintana, S.E., and García-Zapateiro, L.A. (2023). Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction of Mango (Mangifera Indica) Kernel Starch: Chemical, Techno-Functional, and Pasting Properties. Gels, 9. sourceNot checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Olive leaves are rich in phenols including luteolin, rutin, catechin, vanillin, caffeic acid, and oleuropein, with oleuropein being the most abundant and possessing free radical scavenging, skin protection, and anti-aging functions.

“The leaves are rich in phenols, which are present in the following great varieties: luteolin, rutin, catechin, vanillin, caffeic acid, and oleuropein—the final variety is the most abundant, possessing free radical scavenging properties, as well as skin protection and anti-aging functions.”

May combine two claims.

The Chardonnay grape by-product, compared to other grapes, contains abundant levels of flavan-3-ols, and 36 distinct oligosaccharides were discovered.

“The researchers demonstrated that the Chardonnay grape by-product, compared to other grapes, contains abundant levels of flavan-3-ols, and 36 distinct oligosaccharides were discovered.”

• cites [121] Arvik, T.J., Lipson, R.S., and Yokoyama, W.H. Therapeutic Use of Chardonnay Seed Products. (10772924B2), U.S. Patent.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

According to several studies, organic acids such as acetic, lactic, and propionic acids have distinctive roles in food preservation.

“According to several studies, the resulting metabolites represented by organic acids, such as acetic, lactic, and propionic acids, have distinctive roles in food preservation [148,149].”

• cites [148] Ray, B., and Sandine, W.E. (1992). Food Biopreservatives of Microbial Origin, CRC Press.Not checked yet

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• cites [149] Debonne, 2020, Comparison of the Antifungal Effect of Undissociated Lactic and Acetic Acid in Sourdough Bread and in Chemically Acidified Wheat Bread, Int. J. Food Microbiol. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Different cosmetic compositions containing Moringa seed cake were described as natural moisturizers, and the water retention capacity of the skin was confirmed using corneometer measurements.

“Different cosmetic compositions containing Moringa seed cake were described as natural moisturizers, and the water retention capacity of the skin was confirmed using corneometer measurements.”

• cites [128] Dodinet, E., and Bourgeteau, V. Extract of MORINGA Peregrina Seed Cake, Method for Obtaining Same and Use Thereof in Cosmetic or Nutricosmetic Compositions. (2021274083B2), AU Patent.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Mango waste consists of peels, representing 7% to 24% of the fruit's mass, and seeds, representing 20% to 60% of the fruit's mass.

“Mango waste consists of peels and seeds: the former product represents 7% to 24% of the fruit’s mass, while the latter is 20% to 60% of the fruit’s mass.”

• cites [163] Mwaurah, 2020, Physicochemical Characteristics, Bioactive Compounds and Industrial Applications of Mango Kernel and Its Products: A Review, Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Tannin is an anti-nutritional compound that could be exploited in the cosmetic field as a thickening and stabilizing ingredient, a gelling and water retention agent, and for coatings films for controlled release of functional ingredients.

“which is an anti-nutritional compound that could be exploited in the cosmetic field as a thickening and stabilizing ingredient and a gelling and water retention agent, as well as for the preparation of coatings films for the controlled release of functional ingredients [165].”

• cites [165] García-Mahecha, M., Soto-Valdez, H., Carvajal-Millan, E., Madera-Santana, T.J., Lomelí-Ramírez, M.G., and Colín-Chávez, C. (2023). Bioactive Compounds in Extracts from the Agro-Industrial Waste of Mango. Molecules, 28. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Butter obtained from mango by-products can be suggested as a cheaper and more sustainable alternative to cocoa butter.

“Hence, butter obtained from mango by-products can be suggested as a cheaper and more sustainable alternative to cocoa butter, which, despite a similar physicochemical composition, also shows lesser spreadability.”

May combine two claims.

The decortication of agave leaves leads to massive production of hard fibers rich in polysaccharides and fructooligosaccharides, which can be employed in the cosmetic industry.

“In particular, the decortication of leaves led to the massive production of hard fibers rich in polysaccharides and fructooligosaccharides, which can be employed in the cosmetic industry [161].”

• cites [161] Bideshi, 2020, Agave: A Natural Renewable Resource with Multiple Applications, J. Sci. Food Agric. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Lycopene extracted from tomato pomace and some phenolic compounds obtained from grape seed extract are valuable compounds due to their health effects.

“It was reported that lycopene extracted from tomato pomace and some phenolic compounds obtained from grape seed extract are valuable compounds due to their health effects [154,155].”

• cites [154] Weseler, 2017, Masquelier’s Grape Seed Extract: From Basic Flavonoid Research to a Well-Characterized Food Supplement with Health Benefits, Nutr. J. sourceNot checked yet

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• cites [155] van Steenwijk, H.P., Bast, A., and de Boer, A. (2020). The Role of Circulating Lycopene in Low-Grade Chronic Inflammation: A Systematic Review of the Literature. Molecules, 25. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Various scientific and technological challenges need to be addressed to increase the extraction efficiency and boost the bioavailability of value-added substances, not just at lab scale but also at industrial premises.

“In this regard, various scientific and technological challenges need to be addressed to increase the extraction efficiency and boost the bioavailability, not just at lab scale but also at industrial premises, of such value-added substances.”

May combine two claims.

Most of the plant-based by-products mentioned in the previous chapters are rich in dietary fiber and protein, which can represent a valuable raw material for different industries.

“Most of the plant-based by-products mentioned in the previous chapters are rich in dietary fiber and protein, which can represent a valuable raw material for different industries.”

May combine two claims.

Olive by-product compounds show high antioxidant properties, characteristic fatty acid profiles, and interesting mineral compositions.

“In fact, these compounds show high antioxidant properties, characteristic fatty acids profiles, and interesting mineral compositions [166].”

• cites [166] Rodrigues, 2015, Olive By-Products: Challenge Application in Cosmetic Industry, Ind. Crops Prod. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Losses of meat, poultry, and fish commodities are usually due to lipid oxidation and microbial spoilage.

“Losses of such commodities are usually due to lipid oxidation and microbial spoilage.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The use of green solvents and the implementation of low-energy continuous processes are needed to guarantee a totally sustainable approach from all points of view.

“These also include the use of green solvents and the implementation of low-energy continuous processes to guarantee a totally sustainable approach from all points of view.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The extraction of Moringa peregrina seeds was illustrated in a recent patent.

“The extraction of Moringa peregrina seeds was illustrated in a recent patent [128].”

• cites [128] Dodinet, E., and Bourgeteau, V. Extract of MORINGA Peregrina Seed Cake, Method for Obtaining Same and Use Thereof in Cosmetic or Nutricosmetic Compositions. (2021274083B2), AU Patent.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Olive mill pomace contains squalene, a terpenoid molecule naturally present in human sebum that acts as a skin permeation enhancer and exerts antioxidant activity.

“In addition, as reported in a patent and a recent study, the olive mill pomace contains squalene, which is a terpenoid molecule naturally present in human sebum that acts as a skin permeation enhancer and exerts antioxidant activity [127,167].”

• cites [127] Vorster, N.M., and Postma-Botha, M. Olea Europaea Pomace Extract and Method for Producing the Extract. (2018109600A1), WO Patent.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [167] Foti, P., Pino, A., Romeo, F.V., Vaccalluzzo, A., Caggia, C., and Randazzo, C.L. (2022). Olive Pomace and Pâté Olive Cake as Suitable Ingredients for Food and Feed. Microorganisms, 10. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Olive stone powder represents a bio-based alternative to synthetic scrubs and contains an oil rich in vitamin E and oleic and linoleic acids.

“This powder represents a bio-based alternative to synthetic scrubs and a raw material that, although considered a by-product, contains an oil rich in vitamin E and oleic and linoleic acids [126].”

• cites [126] (2023, May 19). Sophim to Introduce PhytOlive Fine at in-cos Global 2023. Available online: https://www.cosmeticsandtoiletries.com/cosmetic-ingredients/news/22738004/sophim-sophim-to-introduce-phytolive-fine-at-incos-global-2023.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Barreto et al. obtained from the industrial by-product of Agave sisalana a polysaccharide-enriched fraction and used it to develop cosmetic nanoemulsions for the improvement of skin moisturization.

“Barreto et al. obtained from the industrial by-product of Agave sisalana a polysaccharide-enriched fraction and used it to develop cosmetic nanoemulsions for the improvement of skin moisturization [162].”

• cites [162] Barreto, 2017, Evaluation of in Vitro and in Vivo Safety of the By-Product of Agave Sisalana as a New Cosmetic Raw Material: Development and Clinical Evaluation of a Nanoemulsion to Improve Skin Moisturizing, Ind. Crops Prod. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Meat, poultry, and fish are perishable materials because of their high water, lipid, and protein content.

“On the other hand, they are perishable materials because of their high water, lipid, and protein content [147].”

• cites [147] Oz, E. (2020). Effects of Smoke Flavoring Using Different Wood Chips and Barbecuing on the Formation of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Heterocyclic Aromatic Amines in Salmon Fillets. PLoS ONE, 15. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.