Student or educator? Sign up with your school email and get 6 months of Pro free.
CoChat
Sign Up
Cited by 2,066

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 13 of the 13 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.

Evidence that Vitamin D Supplementation Could Reduce Risk of Influenza and COVID-19 Infections and Deaths

Open access
Grant, William, Lahore, Henry, McDonnell, Sharon, Baggerly, Carole, French, Christine, Aliano, Jennifer, Bhattoa, Harjit·2020·Nutrients
DOI 10.3390/nu12040988

Published version of a preprint

Open this paper in CoChat — free account

Abstract

The world is in the grip of the COVID-19 pandemic. Public health measures that can reduce the risk of infection and death in addition to quarantines are desperately needed. This article reviews the roles of vitamin D in reducing the risk of respiratory tract infections, knowledge about the epidemiology of influenza and COVID-19, and how vitamin D supplementation might be a useful measure to reduce risk. Through several mechanisms, vitamin D can reduce risk of infections. Those mechanisms include inducing cathelicidins and defensins that can lower viral replication rates and reducing concentrations of pro-inflammatory cytokines that produce the inflammation that injures the lining of the lungs, leading to pneumonia, as well as increasing concentrations of anti-inflammatory cytokines. Several observational studies and clinical trials reported that vitamin D supplementation reduced the risk of influenza, whereas others did not. Evidence supporting the role of vitamin D in reducing risk of COVID-19 includes that the outbreak occurred in winter, a time when 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25(OH)D) concentrations are lowest; that the number of cases in the Southern Hemisphere near the end of summer are low; that vitamin D deficiency has been found to contribute to acute respiratory distress syndrome; and that case-fatality rates increase with age and with chronic disease comorbidity, both of which are associated with lower 25(OH)D concentration. To reduce the risk of infection, it is recommended that people at risk of influenza and/or COVID-19 consider taking 10,000 IU/d of vitamin D3 for a few weeks to rapidly raise 25(OH)D concentrations, followed by 5000 IU/d. The goal should be to raise 25(OH)D concentrations above 40–60 ng/mL (100–150 nmol/L). For treatment of people who become infected with COVID-19, higher vitamin D3 doses might be useful. Randomized controlled trials and large population studies should be conducted to evaluate these recommendations.

Overview

The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.

Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.

A few free checks a day · papers already verified open instantly · results are public

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.3390/nu12040988

Cites

13 of 13 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Verification

Claims the paper makes

The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.

Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.

A few free checks a day · papers already verified open instantly · results are public

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

The self-check needs the paper’s full text.

Citations

Cites

Show all 13 references

Research works printed but not linked: 146

  1. Zhong, 2003, Epidemiology and cause of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) in Guangdong, People’s Republic of China, in February, 2003, Lancet, 362, 1353, 10.1016/S0140-6736(03)14630-2 · DOI · Paper page
  2. Assiri, 2013, Hospital outbreak of Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus, N. Engl. J. Med., 369, 407, 10.1056/NEJMoa1306742 · DOI · Paper page
  3. Song, Z., Xu, Y., Bao, L., Zhang, L., Yu, P., Qu, Y., Zhu, H., Zhao, W., Han, Y., and Qin, C. (2019). From SARS to MERS, Thrusting Coronaviruses into the Spotlight. Viruses, 11. · DOI · Paper page
  4. Yin, 2018, MERS, SARS and other coronaviruses as causes of pneumonia, Respirology, 23, 130, 10.1111/resp.13196 · DOI · Paper page
  5. Paget, 2019, Global mortality associated with seasonal influenza epidemics: New burden estimates and predictors from the GLaMOR Project, J. Glob. Health, 9, 020421, 10.7189/jogh.09.020421 · DOI · Paper page
  6. Pike, 2017, Biology and Mechanisms of Action of the Vitamin D Hormone, Endocrinol. Metab. Clin., 46, 815, 10.1016/j.ecl.2017.07.001 · DOI · Paper page
  7. Beard, 2011, Vitamin D and the anti-viral state, J. Clin. Virol., 50, 194, 10.1016/j.jcv.2010.12.006 · DOI · Paper page
  8. Hewison, 2012, An update on vitamin D and human immunity, Clin. Endocrinol., 76, 315, 10.1111/j.1365-2265.2011.04261.x · DOI · Paper page
  9. Greiller, 2015, Modulation of the immune response to respiratory viruses by vitamin D, Nutrients, 7, 4240, 10.3390/nu7064240 · DOI · Paper page
  10. Wei, 2015, Mechanisms Underlying the Regulation of Innate and Adaptive Immunity by Vitamin D, Nutrients, 7, 8251, 10.3390/nu7105392 · DOI · Paper page
  11. Coussens, 2017, The role of UV radiation and vitamin D in the seasonality and outcomes of infectious disease, Photochem. Photobiol. Sci., 16, 314, 10.1039/c6pp00355a · DOI
  12. Lang, 2017, Vitamin D Status and the Host Resistance to Infections: What It Is Currently (Not) Understood, Clin. Ther., 39, 930, 10.1016/j.clinthera.2017.04.004 · DOI
  13. Gruber-Bzura, B.M. (2018). Vitamin D and Influenza-Prevention or Therapy?. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 19. · DOI
  14. Rondanelli, 2018, Self-Care for Common Colds: The Pivotal Role of Vitamin D, Vitamin C, Zinc, and Echinacea in Three Main Immune Interactive Clusters (Physical Barriers, Innate and Adaptive Immunity) Involved during an Episode of Common Colds-Practical Advice on Dosages and on the Time to Take These Nutrients/Botanicals in order to Prevent or Treat Common Colds, Evid. Based Complement. Alternat. Med., 2018, 5813095, 10.1155/2018/5813095 · DOI
  15. Gombart, A.F., Pierre, A., and Maggini, S. (2020). A Review of Micronutrients and the Immune System-Working in Harmony to Reduce the Risk of Infection. Nutrients, 12. · DOI · Paper page
  16. Schwalfenberg, 2011, A review of the critical role of vitamin D in the functioning of the immune system and the clinical implications of vitamin D deficiency, Mol. Nutr. Food Res., 55, 96, 10.1002/mnfr.201000174 · DOI · Paper page
  17. Kast, 2017, Respiratory syncytial virus infection influences tight junction integrity, Clin. Exp. Immunol., 190, 351, 10.1111/cei.13042 · DOI
  18. Chen, 2020, Epidemiological features and time-series analysis of influenza incidence in urban and rural areas of Shenyang, China, 2010–2018, Epidemiol. Infect., 148, e29, 10.1017/S0950268820000151 · DOI
  19. Rossi, G.A., Fanous, H., and Colin, A.A. (2020). Viral strategies predisposing to respiratory bacterial superinfections. Pediatr. Pulmonol. · DOI
  20. Adams, 2009, Vitamin d-directed rheostatic regulation of monocyte antibacterial responses, J. Immunol., 182, 4289, 10.4049/jimmunol.0803736 · DOI · Paper page
  21. Laaksi, 2012, Vitamin D and respiratory infection in adults, Proc. Nutr. Soc., 71, 90, 10.1017/S0029665111003351 · DOI
  22. Herr, 2007, The role of cathelicidin and defensins in pulmonary inflammatory diseases, Expert Opin. Biol. Ther., 7, 1449, 10.1517/14712598.7.9.1449 · DOI
  23. Agier, 2015, Cathelicidin impact on inflammatory cells, Cent. Eur. J. Immunol., 40, 225, 10.5114/ceji.2015.51359 · DOI
  24. Barlow, P.G., Svoboda, P., Mackellar, A., Nash, A.A., York, I.A., Pohl, J., Davidson, D.J., and Donis, R.O. (2011). Antiviral activity and increased host defense against influenza infection elicited by the human cathelicidin LL-37. PLoS ONE, 6. · DOI · Paper page
  25. Zhao, Y., Ran, Z., Jiang, Q., Hu, N., Yu, B., Zhu, L., Shen, L., Zhang, S., Chen, L., and Chen, H. (2019). Vitamin D Alleviates Rotavirus Infection through a Microrna-155-5p Mediated Regulation of the TBK1/IRF3 Signaling Pathway In Vivo and In Vitro. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 20. · DOI
  26. Hernandez, 2020, Effect of high doses of vitamin D supplementation on dengue virus replication, Toll-like receptor expression, and cytokine profiles on dendritic cells, Mol. Cell. Biochem., 464, 169, 10.1007/s11010-019-03658-w · DOI
  27. Sharifi, 2019, Effect of single-dose injection of vitamin D on immune cytokines in ulcerative colitis patients: A randomized placebo-controlled trial, APMIS, 127, 681, 10.1111/apm.12982 · DOI
  28. Cantorna, 2010, Mechanisms underlying the effect of vitamin D on the immune system, Proc. Nutr. Soc., 69, 286, 10.1017/S0029665110001722 · DOI
  29. Lemire, 1985, 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 suppresses human T helper/inducer lymphocyte activity in vitro, J. Immunol., 134, 3032, 10.4049/jimmunol.134.5.3032 · DOI · Paper page
  30. Cantorna, 2015, Vitamin D and 1,25(OH)2D regulation of T cells, Nutrients, 7, 3011, 10.3390/nu7043011 · DOI · Paper page
  31. Jeffery, 2009, 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 and IL-2 combine to inhibit T cell production of inflammatory cytokines and promote development of regulatory T cells expressing CTLA-4 and FoxP3, J. Immunol., 183, 5458, 10.4049/jimmunol.0803217 · DOI · Paper page
  32. Vasarhelyi, 2011, Low vitamin D levels among patients at Semmelweis University: Retrospective analysis during a one-year period, Orv. Hetil., 152, 1272, 10.1556/OH.2011.29187 · DOI
  33. Novel, 2020, The epidemiological characteristics of an outbreak of 2019 novel coronavirus diseases (COVID-19) in China, Zhonghua Liu Xing Bing Xue Za Zhi, 41, 145
  34. MacLaughlin, 1985, Aging decreases the capacity of human skin to produce vitamin D3, J. Clin. Invest., 76, 1536, 10.1172/JCI112134 · DOI · Paper page
  35. Grober, 2012, Influence of drugs on vitamin D and calcium metabolism, Dermatoendocrinol, 4, 158, 10.4161/derm.20731 · DOI
  36. Lei, G.S., Zhang, C., Cheng, B.H., and Lee, C.H. (2017). Mechanisms of Action of Vitamin D as Supplemental Therapy for Pneumocystis Pneumonia. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother., 61. · DOI
  37. Mousavi, 2019, Immunomodulatory and Antimicrobial Effects of Vitamin C, Eur. J. Microbiol. Immunol., 9, 73, 10.1556/1886.2019.00016 · DOI · Paper page
  38. Berrill, 2020, The antiviral properties of vitamin C, Expert Rev. Anti Infect. Ther., 18, 99, 10.1080/14787210.2020.1706483 · DOI
  39. Wimalawansa, 2020, Global epidemic of coronavirus--COVID-19: What we can do to minimze risksl, Eur. J. Biomed. Pharm. Sci., 7, 432
  40. 1981, The role of season in the epidemiology of influenza, J. Hyg., 86, 35, 10.1017/S0022172400068728 · DOI
  41. Cannell, 2006, Epidemic influenza and vitamin D, Epidemiol. Infect., 134, 1129, 10.1017/S0950268806007175 · DOI · Paper page
  42. Cannell, 2008, On the epidemiology of influenza, Virol. J., 5, 29, 10.1186/1743-422X-5-29 · DOI
  43. Kroll, M.H., Bi, C., Garber, C.C., Kaufman, H.W., Liu, D., Caston-Balderrama, A., Zhang, K., Clarke, N., Xie, M., and Reitz, R.E. (2015). Temporal relationship between vitamin D status and parathyroid hormone in the United States. PLoS ONE, 10. · DOI
  44. Lowen, 2007, Influenza virus transmission is dependent on relative humidity and temperature, PLoS Pathog., 3, 1470, 10.1371/journal.ppat.0030151 · DOI · Paper page
  45. Shaman, 2009, Absolute humidity modulates influenza survival, transmission, and seasonality, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 106, 3243, 10.1073/pnas.0806852106 · DOI · Paper page
  46. Shaman, J., Pitzer, V.E., Viboud, C., Grenfell, B.T., and Lipsitch, M. (2010). Absolute humidity and the seasonal onset of influenza in the continental United States. PLoS Biol., 8. · DOI
  47. Urashima, 2010, Randomized trial of vitamin D supplementation to prevent seasonal influenza A in schoolchildren, Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 91, 1255, 10.3945/ajcn.2009.29094 · DOI · Paper page
  48. Zhou, 2018, Preventive Effects of Vitamin D on Seasonal Influenza A in Infants: A Multicenter, Randomized, Open, Controlled Clinical Trial, Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J., 37, 749, 10.1097/INF.0000000000001890 · DOI
  49. Urashima, 2014, Effects of vitamin D supplements on influenza A illness during the 2009 H1N1 pandemic: A randomized controlled trial, Food Funct., 5, 2365, 10.1039/C4FO00371C · DOI
  50. Arihiro, 2019, Randomized Trial of Vitamin D Supplementation to Prevent Seasonal Influenza and Upper Respiratory Infection in Patients With Inflammatory Bowel Disease, Inflamm. Bowel Dis., 25, 1088, 10.1093/ibd/izy346 · DOI
  51. Loeb, 2019, Effect of Vitamin D supplementation to reduce respiratory infections in children and adolescents in Vietnam: A randomized controlled trial, Influenza Other Respir. Viruses, 13, 176, 10.1111/irv.12615 · DOI
  52. Sabetta, J.R., DePetrillo, P., Cipriani, R.J., Smardin, J., Burns, L.A., and Landry, M.L. (2010). Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin d and the incidence of acute viral respiratory tract infections in healthy adults. PLoS ONE, 5. · DOI · Paper page
  53. Wang, D., Hu, B., Hu, C., Zhu, F., Liu, X., Zhang, J., Wang, B., Xiang, H., Cheng, Z., and Xiong, Y. (2020). Clinical Characteristics of 138 Hospitalized Patients With 2019 Novel Coronavirus-Infected Pneumonia in Wuhan, China. JAMA. · DOI · Paper page
  54. He, 2020, Spatiotemporal trends of PM2.5 concentrations in central China from 2003 to 2018 based on MAIAC-derived high-resolution data, Environ. Int., 137, 105536, 10.1016/j.envint.2020.105536 · DOI
  55. Longhin, 2018, Milan winter fine particulate matter (wPM2.5) induces IL-6 and IL-8 synthesis in human bronchial BEAS-2B cells, but specifically impairs IL-8 release, Toxicol. In Vitro, 52, 365, 10.1016/j.tiv.2018.07.016 · DOI
  56. Autier, 2017, Effect of vitamin D supplementation on non-skeletal disorders: A systematic review of meta-analyses and randomised trials, Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol., 5, 986, 10.1016/S2213-8587(17)30357-1 · DOI · Paper page
  57. Rejnmark, L., Bislev, L.S., Cashman, K.D., Eiriksdottir, G., Gaksch, M., Grubler, M., Grimnes, G., Gudnason, V., Lips, P., and Pilz, S. (2017). Non-skeletal health effects of vitamin D supplementation: A systematic review on findings from meta-analyses summarizing trial data. PLoS ONE, 12. · DOI
  58. Heaney, 2014, Guidelines for optimizing design and analysis of clinical studies of nutrient effects, Nutr. Rev., 72, 48, 10.1111/nure.12090 · DOI · Paper page
  59. Grant, 2018, Why vitamin D clinical trials should be based on 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentrations, J. Steroid Biochem. Mol. Biol., 177, 266, 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.08.009 · DOI
  60. Manson, 2019, Vitamin D Supplements and Prevention of Cancer and Cardiovascular Disease, N. Engl. J. Med., 380, 33, 10.1056/NEJMoa1809944 · DOI · Paper page
  61. Pittas, 2019, Vitamin D Supplementation and Prevention of Type 2 Diabetes, N. Engl. J. Med., 381, 520, 10.1056/NEJMoa1900906 · DOI · Paper page
  62. Lu, 2018, Link between community-acquired pneumonia and vitamin D levels in older patients, Z. Gerontol. Geriatr., 51, 435, 10.1007/s00391-017-1237-z · DOI
  63. Zhou, 2019, The association between vitamin D deficiency and community-acquired pneumonia: A meta-analysis of observational studies, Medicine, 98, e17252, 10.1097/MD.0000000000017252 · DOI
  64. Manion, M., Hullsiek, K.H., Wilson, E.M.P., Rhame, F., Kojic, E., Gibson, D., Hammer, J., Patel, P., Brooks, J.T., and Baker, J.V. (2017). Vitamin D deficiency is associated with IL-6 levels and monocyte activation in HIV-infected persons. PLoS ONE, 12. · DOI
  65. Dalvi, 2019, Study of IL-6 and vitamin D3 in patients of pulmonary tuberculosis, Indian J. Tuberc., 66, 337, 10.1016/j.ijtb.2018.05.018 · DOI
  66. Poudel, 2013, Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin d levels and C-reactive protein in persons with human immunodeficiency virus infection, AIDS Res. Hum. Retrovir., 29, 528, 10.1089/aid.2012.0120 · DOI
  67. Zhang, 2017, Association of serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 with adipokines and inflammatory marker in persons with prediabetes mellitus, Clin. Chim. Acta, 468, 152, 10.1016/j.cca.2017.02.022 · DOI
  68. Zhou, 2018, Association Between Vitamin D Status and Sepsis, Clin. Lab., 64, 451, 10.7754/Clin.Lab.2017.170919 · DOI
  69. Li, Y., and Ding, S. (2020). Serum 25-Hydroxyvitamin D and the risk of mortality in adult patients with Sepsis: A meta-analysis. BMC Infect. Dis., 20. · DOI
  70. Thickett, 2015, Association between prehospital vitamin D status and incident acute respiratory failure in critically ill patients: A retrospective cohort study, BMJ Open Respir. Res., 2, e000074, 10.1136/bmjresp-2014-000074 · DOI
  71. Dancer, 2015, Vitamin D deficiency contributes directly to the acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), Thorax, 70, 617, 10.1136/thoraxjnl-2014-206680 · DOI · Paper page
  72. Hou, 2019, Impact of serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D on cardiac prognosis in Chinese patients with heart failure, Br. J. Nutr., 122, 162, 10.1017/S0007114519000795 · DOI
  73. Salguero, 2020, Is vitamin D deficiency related to a higher risk of hospitalization and mortality in veterans with heart failure?, Maturitas, 132, 30, 10.1016/j.maturitas.2019.11.005 · DOI
  74. McDonnell, 2016, Incidence rate of type 2 diabetes is >50% lower in GrassrootsHealth cohort with median serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D of 41 ng/mL than in NHANES cohort with median of 22 ng/mL, J. Steroid Biochem. Mol. Biol., 155, 239, 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2015.06.013 · DOI
  75. Xie, 2019, Prevalence of Vitamin D Inadequacy Among Chinese Postmenopausal Women: A Nationwide, Multicenter, Cross-Sectional Study, Front. Endocrinol., 9, 782, 10.3389/fendo.2018.00782 · DOI
  76. Brot, 1999, The influence of smoking on vitamin D status and calcium metabolism, Eur. J. Clin. Nutr., 53, 920, 10.1038/sj.ejcn.1600870 · DOI · Paper page
  77. Pilz, 2018, Rationale and Plan for Vitamin D Food Fortification: A Review and Guidance Paper, Front. Endocrinol., 9, 373, 10.3389/fendo.2018.00373 · DOI · Paper page
  78. Chen, 2017, Association Between 25-Hydroxyvitamin D and Epicardial Adipose Tissue in Chinese Non-Obese Patients with Type 2 Diabetes, Med. Sci. Monit., 23, 4304, 10.12659/MSM.904755 · DOI
  79. Lucato, 2017, Low vitamin D levels increase the risk of type 2 diabetes in older adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis, Maturitas, 100, 8, 10.1016/j.maturitas.2017.02.016 · DOI
  80. Qi, D., Nie, X.L., Wu, S., and Cai, J. (2017). Vitamin D and hypertension: Prospective study and meta-analysis. PLoS ONE, 12. · DOI
  81. Gholami, F., Moradi, G., Zareei, B., Rasouli, M.A., Nikkhoo, B., Roshani, D., and Ghaderi, E. (2019). The association between circulating 25-hydroxyvitamin D and cardiovascular diseases: A meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies. BMC Cardiovasc. Disord., 19. · DOI
  82. Zhu, 2016, The association between vitamin D and COPD risk, severity, and exacerbation: An updated systematic review and meta-analysis, Int. J. Chron. Obstruct. Pulmon. Dis., 11, 2597, 10.2147/COPD.S101382 · DOI
  83. Hoseinzadeh, 2018, The impact of air pollutants, UV exposure and geographic location on vitamin D deficiency, Food Chem. Toxicol., 113, 241, 10.1016/j.fct.2018.01.052 · DOI
  84. Slow, 2018, Effect of adjunctive single high-dose vitamin D3 on outcome of community-acquired pneumonia in hospitalised adults: The VIDCAPS randomised controlled trial, Sci. Rep., 8, 13829, 10.1038/s41598-018-32162-2 · DOI
  85. Mirzavandi, 2020, The effect of intramuscular megadose of vitamin D injections on E-selectin, CRP and biochemical parameters in vitamin D-deficient patients with type-2 diabetes mellitus: A randomized controlled trial, Complement. Ther. Med., 49, 102346, 10.1016/j.ctim.2020.102346 · DOI
  86. Amrein, 2018, Vitamin D and critical illness: What endocrinology can learn from intensive care and vice versa, Endocr. Connect., 7, R304, 10.1530/EC-18-0184 · DOI
  87. Han, 2016, High Dose Vitamin D Administration in Ventilated Intensive Care Unit Patients: A Pilot Double Blind Randomized Controlled Trial, J. Clin. Transl. Endocrinol., 4, 59
  88. Henley, 2018, Lung Cancer Among Women in the United States, J. Womens Health, 27, 1307, 10.1089/jwh.2018.7397 · DOI
  89. Malinovschi, 2014, Severe vitamin D deficiency is associated with frequent exacerbations and hospitalization in COPD patients, Respir. Res., 15, 131, 10.1186/s12931-014-0131-0 · DOI
  90. Kim, 2015, Relationship between serum vitamin D concentrations and clinical outcome of community-acquired pneumonia, Int. J. Tuberc. Lung Dis., 19, 729, 10.5588/ijtld.14.0696 · DOI
  91. Naghshtabrizi, 2017, Evaluation of the Relationship between Serum 25-Hydroxy Vitamin D and Hypertension in Hamadan, Iran-A Case Control Study, J. Clin. Diagn. Res., 11, LC01
  92. Valcour, 2012, Effects of age and serum 25-OH-vitamin D on serum parathyroid hormone levels, J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., 97, 3989, 10.1210/jc.2012-2276 · DOI
  93. Christensen, 2010, Seasonal and age-related differences in serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D, 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D and parathyroid hormone in patients from Western Norway, Scand. J. Clin. Lab. Invest., 70, 281, 10.3109/00365511003797172 · DOI
  94. Nam, 2019, Respiratory syncytial virus infection in adults, BMJ, 366, l5021, 10.1136/bmj.l5021 · DOI · Paper page
  95. Paynter, 2015, Respiratory syncytial virus seasonality in tropical Australia, Aust. N. Z. J. Public Health, 39, 8, 10.1111/1753-6405.12347 · DOI
  96. Feng, 2016, The vitamin D status and its effects on life quality among the elderly in Jinan, China, Arch. Gerontol. Geriatr., 62, 26, 10.1016/j.archger.2015.09.002 · DOI
  97. Nassar, 2018, Global seasonal occurrence of middle east respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) infection, Eur. Rev. Med. Pharmacol. Sci., 22, 3913
  98. Grant, W.B., Fakhoury, H.M.A., Karras, S.N., Al Anouti, F., and Bhattoa, H.P. (2019). Variations in 25-Hydroxyvitamin D in Countries from the Middle East and Europe: The Roles of UVB Exposure and Diet. Nutrients, 11. · DOI
  99. Moura, 2009, Seasonality of influenza in the tropics: A distinct pattern in northeastern Brazil, Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg., 81, 180, 10.4269/ajtmh.2009.81.180 · DOI
  100. Arboleda, 2016, Vitamin D-Regulated MicroRNAs: Are They Protective Factors against Dengue Virus Infection?, Adv. Virol., 2016, 1016840, 10.1155/2016/1016840 · DOI
  101. Villamor, 2017, Vitamin D serostatus and dengue fever progression to dengue hemorrhagic fever/dengue shock syndrome, Epidemiol. Infect., 145, 2961, 10.1017/S0950268817002059 · DOI
  102. Fan, 2019, CYP24A1 genetic variants in the vitamin D metabolic pathway are involved in the outcomes of hepatitis C virus infection among high-risk Chinese population, Int. J. Infect. Dis., 84, 80, 10.1016/j.ijid.2019.04.032 · DOI
  103. Hu, Y.C., Wang, W.W., Jiang, W.Y., Li, C.Q., Guo, J.C., and Xun, Y.H. (2019). Low vitamin D levels are associated with high viral loads in patients with chronic hepatitis B: A systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Gastroenterol., 19. · DOI
  104. Brice, 2018, LL-37 disrupts the Kaposi’s sarcoma-associated herpesvirus envelope and inhibits infection in oral epithelial cells, Antivir. Res., 158, 25, 10.1016/j.antiviral.2018.07.025 · DOI
  105. Alvarez, 2019, The Potential Protective Role of Vitamin D Supplementation on HIV-1 Infection, Front. Immunol., 10, 2291, 10.3389/fimmu.2019.02291 · DOI
  106. Gui, 2017, Effects of calcitriol (1, 25-dihydroxy-vitamin D3) on the inflammatory response induced by H9N2 influenza virus infection in human lung A549 epithelial cells and in mice, Virol. J., 14, 10, 10.1186/s12985-017-0683-y · DOI
  107. Currie, S.M., Findlay, E.G., McHugh, B.J., Mackellar, A., Man, T., Macmillan, D., Wang, H., Fitch, P.M., Schwarze, J., and Davidson, D.J. (2013). The human cathelicidin LL-37 has antiviral activity against respiratory syncytial virus. PLoS ONE, 8. · DOI
  108. Laplana, 2018, Vitamin D Receptor polymorphisms and risk of enveloped virus infection: A meta-analysis, Gene, 678, 384, 10.1016/j.gene.2018.08.017 · DOI
  109. Bucak, 2016, Is there a relationship between low vitamin D and rotaviral diarrhea?, Pediatr. Int., 58, 270, 10.1111/ped.12809 · DOI
  110. Theron, 2005, A probable role for IFN-gamma in the development of a lung immunopathology in SARS, Cytokine, 32, 30, 10.1016/j.cyto.2005.07.007 · DOI
  111. Wong, 2004, Plasma inflammatory cytokines and chemokines in severe acute respiratory syndrome, Clin. Exp. Immunol., 136, 95, 10.1111/j.1365-2249.2004.02415.x · DOI · Paper page
  112. Mahallawi, 2018, MERS-CoV infection in humans is associated with a pro-inflammatory Th1 and Th17 cytokine profile, Cytokine, 104, 8, 10.1016/j.cyto.2018.01.025 · DOI · Paper page
  113. Grant, 2009, The possible roles of solar ultraviolet-B radiation and vitamin D in reducing case-fatality rates from the 1918–1919 influenza pandemic in the United States, Dermatoendocrinol, 1, 215, 10.4161/derm.1.4.9063 · DOI
  114. Feigenbaum, 2019, Regional and Racial Inequality in Infectious Disease Mortality in U.S. Cities, 1900–1948, Demography, 56, 1371, 10.1007/s13524-019-00789-z · DOI
  115. Aloia, 2007, Re: Epidemic influenza and vitamin D, Epidemiol. Infect., 135, 1095, 10.1017/S0950268807008308 · DOI
  116. Clay, 2019, What explains cross-city variation in mortality during the 1918 influenza pandemic? Evidence from 438 U.S. cities, Econ. Hum. Biol., 35, 42, 10.1016/j.ehb.2019.03.010 · DOI
  117. Liu, 2019, Effects of air pollutants on occurrences of influenza-like illness and laboratory-confirmed influenza in Hefei, China, Int. J. Biometeorol., 63, 51, 10.1007/s00484-018-1633-0 · DOI
  118. Croft, 2020, Associations between Source-Specific Particulate Matter and Respiratory Infections in New York State Adults, Environ. Sci. Technol., 54, 975, 10.1021/acs.est.9b04295 · DOI
  119. Smith, 2018, High-Dose Vitamin D3 Administration Is Associated With Increases in Hemoglobin Concentrations in Mechanically Ventilated Critically Ill Adults: A Pilot Double-Blind, Randomized, Placebo-Controlled Trial, JPEN J. Parenter. Enter. Nutr., 42, 87, 10.1177/0148607116678197 · DOI
  120. Hagel, 2016, Characteristics and management of patients with influenza in a German hospital during the 2014/2015 influenza season, Infection, 44, 667, 10.1007/s15010-016-0920-0 · DOI
  121. Youssef, 2012, Vitamin D’s potential to reduce the risk of hospital-acquired infections, Derm. Endocrinol., 4, 167, 10.4161/derm.20789 · DOI
  122. Quraishi, 2014, Association between preoperative 25-hydroxyvitamin D level and hospital-acquired infections following Roux-en-Y gastric bypass surgery, JAMA Surg., 149, 112, 10.1001/jamasurg.2013.3176 · DOI
  123. Laviano, E., Sanchez Rubio, M., Gonzalez-Nicolas, M.T., Palacian, M.P., Lopez, J., Gilaberte, Y., Calmarza, P., Rezusta, A., and Serrablo, A. (2020). Association between preoperative levels of 25-hydroxyvitamin D and hospital-acquired infections after hepatobiliary surgery: A prospective study in a third-level hospital. PLoS ONE, 15. · DOI
  124. Heaney, 2003, Human serum 25-hydroxycholecalciferol response to extended oral dosing with cholecalciferol, Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 77, 204, 10.1093/ajcn/77.1.204 · DOI · Paper page
  125. Opdenoordt, 2010, Cholecalciferol loading dose guideline for vitamin D-deficient adults, Eur. J. Endocrinol., 162, 805, 10.1530/EJE-09-0932 · DOI
  126. Amir, 2010, A phase 2 trial exploring the effects of high-dose (10,000 IU/day) vitamin D(3) in breast cancer patients with bone metastases, Cancer, 116, 284, 10.1002/cncr.24749 · DOI
  127. Charoenngam, 2020, The Effect of Various Doses of Oral Vitamin D3 Supplementation on Gut Microbiota in Healthy Adults: A Randomized, Double-blinded, Dose-response Study, Anticancer Res., 40, 551, 10.21873/anticanres.13984 · DOI
  128. Ekwaru, J.P., Zwicker, J.D., Holick, M.F., Giovannucci, E., and Veugelers, P.J. (2014). The importance of body weight for the dose response relationship of oral vitamin D supplementation and serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D in healthy volunteers. PLoS ONE, 9. · DOI · Paper page
  129. Shirvani, 2019, Disassociation of Vitamin D’s Calcemic Activity and Non-calcemic Genomic Activity and Individual Responsiveness: A Randomized Controlled Double-Blind Clinical Trial, Sci. Rep., 9, 17685, 10.1038/s41598-019-53864-1 · DOI
  130. McCullough, 2019, Daily oral dosing of vitamin D3 using 5000 TO 50,000 international units a day in long-term hospitalized patients: Insights from a seven year experience, J. Steroid Biochem. Mol. Biol., 189, 228, 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2018.12.010 · DOI
  131. Holick, 1995, Environmental factors that influence the cutaneous production of vitamin D, Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 61, 638S, 10.1093/ajcn/61.3.638S · DOI · Paper page
  132. Howard, 1948, Intoxication with vitamin D, J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., 8, 895, 10.1210/jcem-8-11-895 · DOI
  133. Malihi, 2019, Monthly high-dose vitamin D supplementation does not increase kidney stone risk or serum calcium: Results from a randomized controlled trial, Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 109, 1578, 10.1093/ajcn/nqy378 · DOI
  134. Cianferotti, 2017, Vitamin D supplementation in the prevention and management of major chronic diseases not related to mineral homeostasis in adults: Research for evidence and a scientific statement from the European society for clinical and economic aspects of osteoporosis and osteoarthritis (ESCEO), Endocrine, 56, 245, 10.1007/s12020-017-1290-9 · DOI
  135. Lappe, 2017, Effect of Vitamin D and Calcium Supplementation on Cancer Incidence in Older Women: A Randomized Clinical Trial, JAMA, 317, 1234, 10.1001/jama.2017.2115 · DOI
  136. Amrein, K., Scherkl, M., Hoffmann, M., Neuwersch-Sommeregger, S., Kostenberger, M., Tmava Berisha, A., Martucci, G., Pilz, S., and Malle, O. (2020). Vitamin D deficiency 2.0: An update on the current status worldwide. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. · DOI · Paper page
  137. Grant, W.B., Al Anouti, F., and Moukayed, M. (2020). Targeted 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentration measurements and vitamin D3 supplementation can have important patient and public health benefits. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. · DOI
  138. Garland, 2009, Vitamin D for cancer prevention: Global perspective, Ann. Epidemiol., 19, 468, 10.1016/j.annepidem.2009.03.021 · DOI · Paper page
  139. Ross, 2011, The 2011 report on dietary reference intakes for calcium and vitamin D from the Institute of Medicine: What clinicians need to know, J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., 96, 53, 10.1210/jc.2010-2704 · DOI · Paper page
  140. Grant, 2016, Do studies reporting ‘U’-shaped serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D-health outcome relationships reflect adverse effects?, Derm. Endocrinol., 8, e1187349, 10.1080/19381980.2016.1187349 · DOI
  141. Holick, 2011, Evaluation, treatment, and prevention of vitamin D deficiency: An Endocrine Society clinical practice guideline, J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., 96, 1911, 10.1210/jc.2011-0385 · DOI · Paper page
  142. Veugelers, 2015, Optimal Vitamin D Supplementation Doses that Minimize the Risk for Both Low and High Serum 25-Hydroxyvitamin D Concentrations in the General Population, Nutrients, 7, 10189, 10.3390/nu7125527 · DOI
  143. Pludowski, 2018, Vitamin D supplementation guidelines, J. Steroid Biochem. Mol. Biol., 175, 125, 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.01.021 · DOI · Paper page
  144. Grant, W.B., and Boucher, B.J. (2019). A Review of the Potential Benefits of Increasing Vitamin D Status in Mongolian Adults through Food Fortification and Vitamin D Supplementation. Nutrients, 11. · DOI
  145. Camargo, 2012, Randomized trial of vitamin D supplementation and risk of acute respiratory infection in Mongolia, Pediatrics, 130, e561, 10.1542/peds.2011-3029 · DOI · Paper page
  146. Uwitonze, 2018, Role of Magnesium in Vitamin D Activation and Function, J. Am. Osteopath Assoc., 118, 181, 10.7556/jaoa.2018.037 · DOI · Paper page

Cited by

See all 2,066

Metadata

Authors
Grant, W., Lahore, H., McDonnell, S., Baggerly, C., French, C., Aliano, J., & Bhattoa, H.
Venue
Nutrients
Publisher
MDPI AG
Published
2020-04-02
Volume
12
Issue
4
Pages
988
ISSN
2072-6643 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.3390/nu12040988
OpenAlex
W3013463190
Cited by
2,066
References
13
FWCI
257.26
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
gold
Licence
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ (vor)

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review

How to cite

Cite CoChat for the checks on this page, and the paper for its own findings.

This page
CoChat. (2026). Citation check: Evidence that Vitamin D Supplementation Could Reduce Risk of Influenza and COVID-19 Infections and Deaths. https://app.cochat.ai/papers/10.3390/nu12040988
The paper
Grant, W., Lahore, H., McDonnell, S., Baggerly, C., French, C., Aliano, J., & Bhattoa, H. (2020). Evidence that Vitamin D Supplementation Could Reduce Risk of Influenza and COVID-19 Infections and Deaths. Nutrients. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12040988

Data sources

Bibliographic data: Semantic Scholar, OpenAlex, Crossref.

Contains information from the Semantic Scholar Academic Graph Datasets, made available under the ODC Attribution License (ODC-BY 1.0).

Semantic Scholar’s data is described in: Kinney, R., et al. (2023). The Semantic Scholar Open Data Platform. arXiv:2301.10140.