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Cited by 24Wood Treatment and PropertiesUltrasonics and Acoustic Wave PropagationNon-Destructive Testing Techniques

Using Acoustic Sensors to Improve the Efficiency of the Forest Value Chain in Canada: A Case Study with Laminated Veneer Lumber

Open access
Achim, Alexis, Paradis, Normand, Carter, Peter, Hernández, Roger E.·2011·Sensors
DOI 10.3390/s110605716PMC PMC3231428
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Abstract

Engineered wood products for structural use must meet minimum strength and stiffness criteria. This represents a major challenge for the industry as the mechanical properties of the wood resource are inherently variable. We report on a case study that was conducted in a laminated veneer lumber (LVL) mill in order to test the potential of an acoustic sensor to predict structural properties of the wood resource prior to processing. A population of 266 recently harvested aspen logs were segregated into three sub-populations based on measurements of longitudinal acoustic speed in wood using a hand tool equipped with a resonance-based acoustic sensor. Each of the three sub-populations were peeled into veneer sheets and graded for stiffness with an ultrasonic device. The average ultrasonic propagation time (UPT) of each subpopulation was 418, 440 and 453 microseconds for the green, blue, and red populations, respectively. This resulted in contrasting proportions of structural veneer grades, indicating that the efficiency of the forest value chain could be improved using acoustic sensors. A linear regression analysis also showed that the dynamic modulus of elasticity (MOE) of LVL was strongly related to static MOE (R2 = 0.83), which suggests that acoustic tools may be used for quality control during the production process.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This case study tested whether a resonance-based acoustic sensor on logs could sort a variable aspen resource into veneer-stiffness subpopulations and predict laminated veneer lumber (LVL) stiffness. Acoustic sorting produced distinct veneer UPT groups, and dynamic MOE from acoustic velocity plus density was strongly related to static MOE in LVL (R² = 0.83).

Key findings

  • A population of 266 aspen logs was split into three subpopulations using acoustic speed thresholds of 3.83 km s⁻¹ and 4.04 km s⁻¹; the resulting veneer average UPTs were 418, 440, and 453 microseconds for the green, blue, and red populations, respectively.
  • The three log subpopulations produced contrasting proportions of structural veneer grades, suggesting acoustic sorting could help manage veneer-grade inventory and improve forest value-chain efficiency.
  • Acoustic velocity alone in LVL was weakly related to static MOE (R² = 0.43), but when density was used to calculate dynamic MOE, the relationship was strong (R² = 0.83).
  • For comparison, sawn lumber of the same species had R² = 0.86, while LVL showed much smaller MOE variability, leading the authors to conclude the method’s accuracy was high.

Methods

  • The trial was conducted at an LVL mill in Amos, Québec, using 266 trembling aspen logs from 10 locations; logs were acoustically tested with a Hitman HM200 hand tool, classified into three velocity grades, processed separately, and veneer sheets were graded with a Metriguard 2650 DFX ultrasonic veneer tester measuring UPT.
  • A sample of 35 LVL pieces was destructively tested according to ASTM D-4761; pieces averaged 45 × 112 mm with lengths from 2.5 to 3.7 m and target moisture content of 10%, and acoustically derived MOE was compared with static MOE using linear regression.
  • For solid-wood comparison, 15 trembling aspen trees from Laval University’s Montmorency forest were sampled, one 2.5 m log per tree was sawn into 73 nominal 50 × 100 mm studs, dried to 12% moisture content, tested in static bending per ASTM D-4761, and planed to 38 × 89 mm.

Limitations

  • The paper states that the Hitman HM200 had difficulties at temperatures well below freezing, that velocity thresholds between log grades would need to change with temperature, and that seasonal moisture-content variation complicates seasonal adjustments; more work is needed before temperature effects can be fully accounted for.
  • The paper notes the LVL relationship was somewhat lower than some literature results for sawn pieces, though similar to sawn lumber of the same species, and acknowledges that the relationship could be weaker without low-stiffness pieces, which the authors do not see as an issue for quality-control aims.
  • Evident from the text: this is a single-mill case study on one species, with frozen logs, a small destructive LVL sample (n = 35), and thresholds derived from a 50-log subsample, so broader industrial and climatic generalization is not established.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.3390/s110605716

Cites

31 of 31 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

5 of 25 cited sources checked · 2 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured

  • Premisecitation

    The physico-mechanical properties of wood vary within and between individuals of the same species.

    “the physico-mechanical properties of wood are known to vary within and between individuals of the same species [13].”
    • Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
      “the mechanical properties of the wood resource are inherently variable.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [13] Macdonald, 2002, A review of the effects of silviculture on timber quality of Sitka spruce, Forestry source
  • Findingcitation

    The value of dynamic MOE tended to be higher than static MOE.

    “although its value tended to be higher than the static MOE [44].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [44] Ridley-Ellis, D, Moore, JR, and Lyon, AJ (2008, January 29–30). Strength grading and the end user—Lessons from the SIRT project at Napier University. Delft, The Netherlands.

      The Non-destructive testing and segregation section compares dynamic and static MOE and reports their correlation, but does not say that dynamic MOE tends to be higher. Searches for a higher dynamic stiffness or MOE value found no passage establishing that direction of difference. (LLM, conf=0.72)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Findingown data

    The dynamic modulus of elasticity (MOE) of LVL is strongly related to static MOE (R2 = 0.83).

    “A linear regression analysis also showed that the dynamic modulus of elasticity (MOE) of LVL was strongly related to static MOE (R2 = 0.83)”
    • Also stated in: § Tests on LVL · plain
      “the strength of the relationship was increased when density was used to calculate the dynamic MOE (R2 = 0.83, Figure 4(a))”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    The three log subpopulations produced three distinct subpopulations of veneer in terms of quality as assessed by UPT.

    “The three subpopulations of logs defined from our acoustic measurements produced three distinct subpopulations of veneer in terms of quality as assessed by their UPT (Figure 2).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Assuming a constant density, the velocity of ultrasound in veneer can be related to the stiffness of the sheet.
  • Findingown data

    The average ultrasonic propagation time (UPT) of the green, blue, and red log subpopulations was 418, 440 and 453 microseconds, respectively.

    “The average ultrasonic propagation time (UPT) of each subpopulation was 418, 440 and 453 microseconds for the green, blue, and red populations, respectively.”
    • Also stated in: § Tests on Logs · plain
      “The average UPT of each subpopulation was 418, 440 and 453 microseconds for the green, blue, and red populations, respectively.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Assuming a constant density, the velocity of ultrasound in veneer can be related to the stiffness of the sheet.
  • May combine two claims. 9
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 5

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The production of LVL implies that the whole cross section of the log is peeled into veneers except for the central core, which should increase the accuracy of predictions obtained from a resonant acoustic method compared with sawn lumber.

    “This should increase the accuracy of the predictions obtained from a resonant acoustic method as, unlike sawn lumber from round logs [26–28,41], almost all the cross sectional area is processed into veneers.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 4 sources checked
    • cites [26] Carter, 2006, Sorting logs and lumber for stiffness using director HM200, Wood Fiber Sci
    • cites [27] Matheson, 2002, Acoustic segregation of Pinus radiata logs according to stiffness, Ann. Forest Sci source
    • cites [28] Tsehaye, 2000, Sorting of logs using acoustics, Wood Sci. Tech source
    • cites [41] Ross, 1997, Relationship between log and lumber modulus of elasticity, Forest Prod. J

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Most industrial interest is currently targeted at using resonance acoustic sensors on logs to predict the MOE of sawn lumber or other structural wood products.

    “currently most industrial interest is targeted at using resonance acoustic sensors on logs to predict the MOE of sawn lumber [26–28] or other structural wood products.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [26] Carter, 2006, Sorting logs and lumber for stiffness using director HM200, Wood Fiber Sci
    • cites [27] Matheson, 2002, Acoustic segregation of Pinus radiata logs according to stiffness, Ann. Forest Sci source

      The Discussion (section 4; page not provided) says acoustic measurements of logs can predict machine stress grades of sawn lumber and that new resonance tools are in development. The paper does not establish that most industrial interest targets this use, or show prediction of MOE for other structural wood products. (LLM, conf=0.84)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [28] Tsehaye, 2000, Sorting of logs using acoustics, Wood Sci. Tech source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Acoustic velocity measured by resonant frequencies obeys the Law of Mixtures and should approach the volume-weighted average velocities of all lumber pieces sawn from a log, as confirmed by empirical results.

    “Because the acoustic velocity measured by the resonant frequencies obeys the Law of Mixtures [8] it should approach the volume-weighted average velocities of all lumber pieces sawn from it, a fact confirmed by empirical results [26,27].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [8] Bodig, J, and Jayne, BA (1993). Mechanics of Wood and Wood Composites, Krieger Publishing Company.

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [26] Carter, 2006, Sorting logs and lumber for stiffness using director HM200, Wood Fiber Sci
    • cites [27] Matheson, 2002, Acoustic segregation of Pinus radiata logs according to stiffness, Ann. Forest Sci source

      The Analysis section (p. not available) says the authors calculated weighted average stiffness grades from individual boards. Results §3.3 (p. not available) finds a significant correlation between log wave velocity and average board stiffness. The paper does not show that log velocity approaches a volume-weighted average of board velocities, and its measurements used a stress-wave timer rather than resonant frequencies. The Law of Mixtures is attached to a different citation in the citing sentence. (LLM, conf=0.86)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The use of acoustic sensing technology could improve decision-making earlier in the wood chain, either by influencing timber procurement or by helping optimize the use of timber stored at the mill yard.

    “The use of acoustic sensing technology could therefore improve decision-making earlier in the wood chain, either by influencing timber procurement in order to suit the specific needs of a mill, or by helping optimize the use (i.e., finding appropriate applications for end-use and/or improve processing) of timber stored at the mill yard.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: In Canada, few applications of acoustic sensing technology have been dedicated to improving decision-making higher up in the wood chain (from forest to mill).

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The contrasting proportions of structural veneer grades among the log subpopulations indicate that the efficiency of the forest value chain could be improved using acoustic sensors.

    “This resulted in contrasting proportions of structural veneer grades, indicating that the efficiency of the forest value chain could be improved using acoustic sensors.”
    • Also stated in: § Tests on Logs · hedged
      “The range of veneers found in each subpopulation of logs (Figure 3) tends to confirm the potential of the method to improve the efficiency a LVL mill.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The post-processing approach of combining veneers of different grades to produce each LVL piece leads to important logistical problems in the mill when the log supply produces too few or too many veneers of any particular grade.
    • Rests on an assumption: LVL mills are typically short supplied on the higher MOE, higher value veneer grades.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    The Hitman HM200 sensor can be used to trace wood properties according to source.

    “The Hitman HM200 sensor can be used to trace wood properties according to source.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    The preference for visual grades, and the small margin between MSR and visually graded lumber, largely explain why the Canadian forest industry has not yet integrated acoustic sensing technology into its operational strategy.

    “The preference for visual grades, and small margin between MSR and visual graded lumber, largely explain why the Canadian forest industry has not yet integrated this technology into its operational strategy.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The automated Hitman LG640 would not be affected by cold in the same way as the Hitman HM200, because its sensor is a microphone rather than a rubber-mounted contact sensor.

    “The automated Hitman LG640 would not be affected in the same way, as the sensor in this device is a microphone rather than a rubber-mounted contact sensor”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationown data

    Resonance-based acoustic measurements made on logs at the mill yard would represent a good first step towards improving decision-making early in the wood supply chain.

    “Our results and those of similar studies suggest that resonance-based acoustic measurements made on logs at the mill yard would represent a good first step towards improving decision-making early in the wood supply chain.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Moisture content of a log can vary according to tree characteristics, site and season, affecting effective log density and acoustic velocity.

    “the moisture content of the log can vary according to tree characteristics, site and season [30,31], thus affecting the effective log density and, in turn, acoustic velocity [32].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [30] Gates, 1991, Water relations of forest trees, IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens source
    • cites [31] Gingras, JF, and Sotomayor, J (1992). Wood Moisture Variation in Woodlands Inventory: A Case Study, FERIC.

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [32] Chan, JM, Walker, JC, and Raymond, CA (2010). Effects of moisture content and temperature on acoustic velocity and dynamic MOE of radiata pine sapwood boards. Wood Sci Tech. source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Harvested stems or cut logs represent the first stage where resonance-based acoustics can be used.

    “harvested stems or cut logs represent the first stage where resonance-based acoustics can be used.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Quality control could be improved during the production process by using acoustic measurement, increasing the speed of testing and reducing the destruction of LVL pieces.

    “The practical implication is that quality control could be improved during the production process, thereby increasing the speed of testing and reducing the destruction of LVL pieces.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The aim of quality control is to identify and possibly discard low stiffness pieces rather than to make a precise assessment of MOE within a given LVL grade.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Seasonal variation of moisture content in trees implies a variation of the effective density in Equation 1, and therefore complicates seasonal adjustments of velocity thresholds.

    “there is also a seasonal variation of moisture content in trees [30,31]. Such variation implies a variation of the effective density in Equation 1, and therefore complicates seasonal adjustments of velocity thresholds.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [30] Gates, 1991, Water relations of forest trees, IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens source
    • cites [31] Gingras, JF, and Sotomayor, J (1992). Wood Moisture Variation in Woodlands Inventory: A Case Study, FERIC.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    An estimation of dynamic MOE from acoustic velocity requires a measure of log density, but wood density varies between and within trees.

    “an estimation of the dynamic MOE requires a measure of log density, but like other wood properties, wood density varies between and within trees.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
14 of 14

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    In Canada, few applications of acoustic sensing technology have been dedicated to improving decision-making higher up in the wood chain (from forest to mill).

    “In Canada however, despite an interest for the application of acoustic sensing technology within wood production mills, few applications have been dedicated to improving decision-making higher up in the wood chain, i.e., in the supply chain from the forest to the mill.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The post-processing approach of combining veneers of different grades to produce each LVL piece leads to important logistical problems in the mill when the log supply produces too few or too many veneers of any particular grade.

    “However, this post-processing approach leads to important logistical problems in the mill when the log supply produces too few or too many veneers of any particular grade.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    LVL mills are typically short supplied on the higher MOE, higher value veneer grades.

    “Typically mills are short supplied on the higher MOE, higher value veneer grades.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    LVL has reduced variability and increased mechanical properties compared with normal dimension lumber.

    “This results in reduced variability and increased mechanical properties in LVL compared with normal dimension lumber.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Assuming a constant density, the velocity of ultrasound in veneer can be related to the stiffness of the sheet.

    “Assuming a constant density, the velocity of the ultrasound can be related to the stiffness of the sheet.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The aim of quality control is to identify and possibly discard low stiffness pieces rather than to make a precise assessment of MOE within a given LVL grade.

    “the aim of quality control will be to identify (and possibly discard) such low stiffness pieces, rather than to make a precise assessment of MOE within a given LVL grade.”
6 of 6

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

8 of the 39 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.

Research works printed but not linked: 3

  1. Brashaw, 2009, Nondestructive testing and evaluation of wood: A worldwide research update, Forest Prod. J, 59, 7
  2. Pepke, E (2010). Forest Products Annual Market Review 2009–2010, United Nations.
  3. Ross, 1997, Relationship between log and lumber modulus of elasticity, Forest Prod. J, 47, 89

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Achim, A., Paradis, N., Carter, P., & Hernández, R. E.
Affiliations
  • Université Laval (CA)
  • Fibre-Gen, Unit 5 Amuri Park, 404 Barbadoes Street, Christchurch, New Zealand
Corresponding author
Achim, Alexis
ORCID
Venue
Sensors
Publisher
MDPI AG
Published
2011-05-27
Volume
11
Issue
6
Pages
5716-5728
ISSN
1424-8220 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.3390/s110605716
PMC
PMC3231428
OpenAlex
W1987691393
Cited by
24
References
39
Citations by year
2026: 2 · 2025: 1 · 2022: 1 · 2021: 2 · 2018: 4 · 2017: 1 · 2016: 2 · 2015: 2 · 2014: 1 · 2013: 7 · 2012: 1
FWCI
6.23
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Sensors (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed Central (submittedVersion, cc-by)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
Funders
Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada
Topics
  • Physical Sciences › Engineering › Building and Construction › Wood Treatment and Properties
  • Physical Sciences › Engineering › Mechanics of Materials › Ultrasonics and Acoustic Wave Propagation
  • Physical Sciences › Engineering › Mechanical Engineering › Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
Keywords
laminated veneer lumber, acoustic sensors, forest value chain, ultrasonic propagation time, stiffness, dynamic modulus of elasticity, structural wood products, quality control
MeSH terms
Acoustics, Algorithms, Canada, Elasticity, Environmental Monitoring, Industry, Regression Analysis, Stress, Mechanical, Telemetry, Time Factors, Trees, Wood, Models, Statistical

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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

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Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-16.

Cited sources are checked by gpt-6-sol.

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