Student or educator? Sign up with your school email and get 6 months of Pro free.
CoChat
Sign Up
Cited by 142

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 5 of the 5 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.

Gender Differences in Attitudes to Vegans/Vegetarians and Their Food Preferences, and Their Implications for Promoting Sustainable Dietary Patterns–A Systematic Review

Modlinska, Klaudia, Adamczyk, Dominika, Maison, Dominika, Pisula, Wojciech·2020·Sustainability
DOI 10.3390/su12166292
Open this paper in CoChat — free account

Abstract

Limiting meat consumption has recently become one of the key issues linked to public health and environmental sustainability. This is reflected in the strong emphasis on increasing promotion of plant-based nutritional styles, such as vegan and vegetarian diets. Vegan/vegetarian diets appeal to certain demographic groups more than to others. The most striking difference, however, is found between the sexes. Men and women differ in their preferences for plant products and in their attitudes to meat consumption. There are also differences between their motivations to start and/or follow a vegan/vegetarian diet. Major differences have also been observed in men’s and women’s attitudes towards people following plant-based diets. Vegetarian diets are generally considered to be less masculine than meat-based diets, and omnivores exhibit more prejudice against vegetarian men than women. This study follows the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) systematic literature review model. The Web of Science and PubMed databases were searched (up to January 2020) to identify studies, which analysed variables directly or indirectly related to inter-sex differences with regard to the vegan/vegetarian diet. After the screening process based on the relevance and quality criteria, 29 articles were included in the study. The purpose of this review is to raise awareness of these gender differences, not only as regards social perceptions, but also in terms of individual attitudes to vegetarian/vegan diets. Ignoring those differences hinders the promotion of plant-based diets and may explain the relatively meager success of previous efforts to promote sustainable nutritional styles.

Overview

The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.

Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.

A few free checks a day · papers already verified open instantly · results are public

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.3390/su12166292

Cites

5 of 5 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Verification

Claims the paper makes

The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.

Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.

A few free checks a day · papers already verified open instantly · results are public

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

The self-check needs the paper’s full text.

Citations

Cites

Research works printed but not linked: 108

  1. Chai, B.C., van der Voort, J.R., Grofelnik, K., Eliasdottir, H.G., Klöss, I., and Perez-Cueto, F.J. (2019). Which diet has the least environmental impact on our planet? A systematic review of vegan, vegetarian and omnivorous diets. Sustainability, 11. · DOI · Paper page
  2. Aleksandrowicz, L., Green, R., Joy, E.J., Smith, P., and Haines, A. (2016). The impacts of dietary change on greenhouse gas emissions, land use, water use, and health: A systematic review. PLoS ONE, 11. · DOI · Paper page
  3. Huang, 2012, Cardiovascular disease mortality and cancer incidence in vegetarians: A meta-analysis and systematic review, Ann. Nutr. Metab., 60, 233, 10.1159/000337301 · DOI · Paper page
  4. Marsh, 2012, Health implications of a vegetarian diet: A review, Am. J. Lifestyle Med., 6, 250, 10.1177/1559827611425762 · DOI
  5. Song, S., Kim, J., and Kim, J. (2018). Gender differences in the association between dietary pattern and the incidence of hypertension in middle-aged and older adults. Nutrients, 10. · DOI
  6. Fox, 2008, Health, ethics and environment: A qualitative study of vegetarian motivations, Appetite, 50, 422, 10.1016/j.appet.2007.09.007 · DOI · Paper page
  7. Hartmann, 2017, Insects as food: Perception and acceptance. Findings from current research, Ernahr. Umsch., 64, 44
  8. Rosenfeld, 2020, Gender differences in vegetarian identity: How men and women construe meatless dieting, Food Qual. Prefer., 81, 103859, 10.1016/j.foodqual.2019.103859 · DOI
  9. Ruby, 2012, Vegetarianism. A blossoming field of study, Appetite, 58, 141, 10.1016/j.appet.2011.09.019 · DOI · Paper page
  10. Rogers, 2008, Beasts, burgers, and hummers: Meat and the crisis of masculinity in contemporary television advertisements, Environ. Commun., 2, 281, 10.1080/17524030802390250 · DOI
  11. Roos, 2001, Men, masculinity and food: Interviews with Finnish carpenters and engineers, Appetite, 37, 47, 10.1006/appe.2001.0409 · DOI
  12. Sobal, 2005, Men, meat, and marriage: Models of masculinity, Food Foodways, 13, 135, 10.1080/07409710590915409 · DOI · Paper page
  13. Holm, 1999, Preferences, quantities and concerns: Socio-cultural perspectives on the gendered consumption of foods, Eur. J. Clin. Nutr., 53, 351, 10.1038/sj.ejcn.1600767 · DOI
  14. Rothgerber, 2013, Real men don’t eat (vegetable) quiche: Masculinity and the justification of meat consumption, Psychol. Men Masc., 14, 363, 10.1037/a0030379 · DOI · Paper page
  15. Rudy, 2012, Locavores, Feminism, and the Question of Meat, J. Am. Cult., 35, 26, 10.1111/j.1542-734X.2011.00795.x · DOI
  16. Trocchia, 2003, A cluster analytic approach for consumer segmentation using the vegetarian/meatarian distinction, J. Food Prod. Mark., 9, 11, 10.1300/J038v09n02_02 · DOI
  17. Cooke, 2005, Age and gender differences in children’s food preferences, Br. J. Nutr., 93, 741, 10.1079/BJN20051389 · DOI · Paper page
  18. Reynolds, 1999, Patterns in child and adolescent consumption of fruit and vegetables: Effects of gender and ethnicity across four sites, J. Am. Coll. Nutr., 18, 248, 10.1080/07315724.1999.10718859 · DOI
  19. Scheule, 2009, Gender differences in food preferences of school-aged children and adolescents, J. Sch. Health, 79, 532, 10.1111/j.1746-1561.2009.00445.x · DOI
  20. Diehl, 1999, Food preferences of 10- to 14-year-old boys and girls, Schweiz. Med. Wochenschr., 129, 151
  21. Amato, P.R., and Partridge, S.A. (2013). The New Vegetarians: Promoting Health and Protecting Life, Springer.
  22. Worsley, 1998, Teenage vegetarianism: Prevalence, social and cognitive contexts, Appetite, 30, 151, 10.1006/appe.1997.0118 · DOI
  23. Kahan, 2003, Conformity and dietary disinhibition: A test of the ego-strength model of self-regulation, Int. J. Eat. Disord., 33, 165, 10.1002/eat.10132 · DOI
  24. Pliner, 1990, Gender differences in concern with body weight and physical appearance over the life span, Pers. Soc. Psychol. Bull., 16, 263, 10.1177/0146167290162007 · DOI · Paper page
  25. Piazza, 2015, Rationalizing meat consumption. The 4Ns, Appetite, 91, 114, 10.1016/j.appet.2015.04.011 · DOI · Paper page
  26. Modlinska, K., and Pisula, W. (2018). Selected psychological aspects of meat consumption—A short review. Nutrients, 10. · DOI
  27. Weinrich, R. (2019). Opportunities for the adoption of health-based sustainable dietary patterns: A review on consumer research of meat substitutes. Sustainability, 11. · DOI
  28. Moher, D., Liberati, A., Tetzlaff, J., and Altman, D.G. (2009). The PRISMA Group. Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses: The PRISMA Statement. PLoS Med., 6. · DOI · Paper page
  29. MacInnis, 2017, It ain’t easy eating greens: Evidence of bias toward vegetarians and vegans from both source and target, Group Process. Intergroup Relat., 20, 721, 10.1177/1368430215618253 · DOI · Paper page
  30. Minson, 2012, Do-gooder derogation: Disparaging morally motivated minorities to defuse anticipated reproach, Soc. Psychol. Personal. Sci., 3, 200, 10.1177/1948550611415695 · DOI · Paper page
  31. Judge, 2019, A dual-process motivational model of attitudes towards vegetarians and vegans, Eur. J. Soc. Psychol., 49, 169, 10.1002/ejsp.2386 · DOI
  32. Ruby, 2011, Meat, morals, and masculinity, Appetite, 56, 447, 10.1016/j.appet.2011.01.018 · DOI · Paper page
  33. Chin, 2002, Development of the attitudes toward vegetarians scale, Anthrozoös, 15, 332, 10.2752/089279302786992441 · DOI
  34. Walker, 1995, Meet the new vegetarian, Am. Demogr., 17, 9
  35. Rozin, 2012, Is meat male? A quantitative multimethod framework to establish metaphoric relationships, J. Consum. Res., 39, 629, 10.1086/664970 · DOI · Paper page
  36. Thomas, 2016, Are vegans the same as vegetarians? The effect of diet on perceptions of masculinity, Appetite, 97, 79, 10.1016/j.appet.2015.11.021 · DOI
  37. Torti, J.M. (2017). The Social and Psychological Well-Being of Vegetarians: A Focused Ethnography. [Ph.D. Thesis, University of Alberta].
  38. White, 2006, To be or not be? The influence of dissociative reference groups on consumer preferences, J. Consum. Psychol., 16, 404, 10.1207/s15327663jcp1604_11 · DOI · Paper page
  39. Erreygers, 2020, Meat and masculinities. Can differences in masculinity predict meat consumption, intentions to reduce meat and attitudes towards vegetarians?, Appetite, 147, 104559, 10.1016/j.appet.2019.104559 · DOI
  40. Kaplan, 2017, What about nontraditional masculinities? Toward a quantitative model of therapeutic new masculinity ideology, Men Masc., 20, 393, 10.1177/1097184X16634797 · DOI
  41. Amiraian, 2009, Dating and eating. Beliefs about dating foods among university students, Appetite, 53, 226, 10.1016/j.appet.2009.06.012 · DOI
  42. Bartoli, 2006, The dating game: Similarities and differences in dating scripts among college students, Sex Cult., 10, 54, 10.1007/s12119-006-1026-0 · DOI
  43. Vartanian, 2015, Impression management and food intake. Current directions in research, Appetite, 86, 74, 10.1016/j.appet.2014.08.021 · DOI
  44. Vartanian, 2007, Consumption stereotypes and impression management: How you are what you eat, Appetite, 48, 265, 10.1016/j.appet.2006.10.008 · DOI · Paper page
  45. Timeo, 2017, Eating meat makes you sexy: Conformity to dietary gender norms and attractiveness, Psychol. Men Masc., 19, 418, 10.1037/men0000119 · DOI
  46. Ruby, 2016, Attitudes toward beef and vegetarians in Argentina, Brazil, France, and the USA, Appetite, 96, 546, 10.1016/j.appet.2015.10.018 · DOI
  47. Beardsworth, 1992, The vegetarian option: Varieties, conversions, motives and careers, Sociol. Rev., 40, 253, 10.1111/j.1467-954X.1992.tb00889.x · DOI · Paper page
  48. Worsley, 1997, Teenage vegetarianism: Beauty or the beast?, Nutr. Res., 17, 391, 10.1016/S0271-5317(97)00003-1 · DOI
  49. Mortara, 2013, ‘Techno mums’ motivations towards vegetarian and vegan lifestyles, Ital. Sociol. Rev., 3, 184
  50. Sedupane, G. (2017). A Qualitative Study Exploring the Experiences of Black South African Vegetarians Residing in the Urban Settings of Cape Town. [Master’s Thesis, University of Western Cape Town].
  51. Merriman, 2010, Gender differences in family and peer reaction to the adoption of a vegetarian diet, Fem. Psychol., 20, 420, 10.1177/0959353510368283 · DOI
  52. Hamilton, 2006, Eating death: Vegetarians, meat and violence, Food Cult. Soc., 9, 155, 10.2752/155280106778606053 · DOI
  53. Herek, 2002, Gender gaps in public opinion about lesbians and gay men, Public Opin. Q., 66, 40, 10.1086/338409 · DOI · Paper page
  54. Aosved, 2006, Co-occurrence of rape myth acceptance, sexism, racism, homophobia, ageism, classicism, and religious intolerance, Sex Roles, 55, 481, 10.1007/s11199-006-9101-4 · DOI · Paper page
  55. Gal, 2010, Real men don’t eat quiche: Regulation of gender-expressive choices by men, Soc. Psychol. Personal. Sci., 1, 291, 10.1177/1948550610365003 · DOI
  56. Jabs, 1998, Model of the process of adopting vegetarian diets. Health vegetarians and ethical vegetarians, J. Nutr. Educ., 30, 196, 10.1016/S0022-3182(98)70319-X · DOI
  57. Appleby, 1998, Low body mass index in non-meat eaters: The possible roles of animal fat, dietary fibre and alcohol, Int. J. Obes., 22, 454, 10.1038/sj.ijo.0800607 · DOI
  58. Rizzo, 2011, Vegetarian dietary patterns are associated with a lower risk of metabolic syndrome: The adventist health study 2, Diabetes Care, 34, 1225, 10.2337/dc10-1221 · DOI · Paper page
  59. Wien, 2015, A perspective on vegetarian dietary patterns and risk of metabolic syndrome, Br. J. Nutr., 113, 136, 10.1017/S0007114514004139 · DOI
  60. Fan, 2013, Vegetarian diets and the incidence of cancer in a low-risk population, Cancer Epidemiol. Prev. Biomark., 22, 286, 10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-12-1060 · DOI
  61. Kiefer, 2005, Eating and dieting differences in men and women, J. Men’s Health Gend., 2, 194, 10.1016/j.jmhg.2005.04.010 · DOI · Paper page
  62. Davy, 2006, Sex differences in dieting trends, eating habits, and nutrition beliefs of a group of midwestern college students, J. Am. Diet Assoc., 106, 1673, 10.1016/j.jada.2006.07.017 · DOI · Paper page
  63. Wardle, 2004, Gender differences in food choice: The contribution of health beliefs and dieting, Ann. Behav. Med., 27, 107, 10.1207/s15324796abm2702_5 · DOI · Paper page
  64. Vereecken, 2004, Influence of mother’s educational level on food parenting practices and food habits of young children, Appetite, 43, 93, 10.1016/j.appet.2004.04.002 · DOI · Paper page
  65. Mooney, 2001, When college students reject food: Not just a matter of taste, Appetite, 36, 41, 10.1006/appe.2000.0384 · DOI
  66. Gilbody, 1999, Vegetarianism in young women: Another means of weight control?, Int. J. Eat. Disord., 26, 87, 10.1002/(SICI)1098-108X(199907)26:1<87::AID-EAT11>3.0.CO;2-M · DOI
  67. Appleby, 2016, The long-term health of vegetarians and vegans, Proc. Nutr. Soc., 75, 287, 10.1017/S0029665115004334 · DOI · Paper page
  68. Janelle, 1995, Nutrient intakes and eating behavior see of vegetarian and nonvegetarian women, J. Am. Diet Assoc., 95, 180, 10.1016/S0002-8223(95)00045-3 · DOI
  69. Rosenfeld, 2020, Taste and health concerns trump anticipated stigma as barriers to vegetarianism, Appetite, 144, 104469, 10.1016/j.appet.2019.104469 · DOI
  70. Gough, 2006, Barriers to healthy eating amongst men: A qualitative analysis, Soc. Sci. Med., 62, 387, 10.1016/j.socscimed.2005.05.032 · DOI · Paper page
  71. Beardsworth, 2002, Women, men and food: The significance of gender for nutritional attitudes and choices, Br. Food J., 104, 470, 10.1108/00070700210418767 · DOI · Paper page
  72. Lea, 2003, Benefits and barriers to the consumption of a vegetarian diet in Australia, Public Health Nutr., 6, 505, 10.1079/PHN2002452 · DOI
  73. Kalof, 1999, Social psychological and structural influences on vegetarian beliefs, Rural Sociol., 64, 500, 10.1111/j.1549-0831.1999.tb00364.x · DOI
  74. Helgeson, 1994, Prototypes and dimensions of masculinity and femininity, Sex Roles, 31, 653, 10.1007/BF01544286 · DOI
  75. Filippi, M., Riccitelli, G., Falini, A., Di Salle, F., Vuilleumier, P., Comi, G., and Rocca, M.A. (2010). The brain functional networks associated to human and animal suffering differ among omnivores, vegetarians and vegans. PLoS ONE, 5. · DOI
  76. Kruse, 1999, Gender, views of nature, and support for animal rights, Soc. Anim., 7, 179, 10.1163/156853099X00077 · DOI
  77. Herzog, 2007, Gender differences in human-animal interactions: A review, Anthrozoös, 20, 7, 10.2752/089279307780216687 · DOI · Paper page
  78. Eldridge, 1996, Gender differences in attitudes toward animal research, Ethics Behav., 6, 239, 10.1207/s15327019eb0603_5 · DOI
  79. Herzog, 1991, Gender, sex role orientation, and attitudes toward animals, Anthrozoös, 4, 184, 10.2752/089279391787057170 · DOI · Paper page
  80. Gilligan, C. (1993). A Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women’s Development, Harvard University Press. · DOI · Paper page
  81. Kellert, 1987, Attitudes, knowledge, and behaviors toward wildlife as affected by gender, Wildl. Soc. Bull., 15, 363
  82. Haverstock, 2012, To eat or not to eat. A comparison of current and former animal product limiters, Appetite, 58, 1030, 10.1016/j.appet.2012.02.048 · DOI
  83. 2016, Animal humanness, animal use, and intention to become an ethical vegetarian or an ethical vegan, Anthrozoös, 29, 263, 10.1080/08927936.2016.1152720 · DOI
  84. Hoffman, 2013, Differences between health and ethical vegetarians. Strength of conviction, nutrition knowledge, dietary restriction, and duration of adherence, Appetite, 65, 139, 10.1016/j.appet.2013.02.009 · DOI
  85. Radnitz, 2015, Investigation of lifestyle choices of individuals following a vegan diet for health and ethical reasons, Appetite, 90, 31, 10.1016/j.appet.2015.02.026 · DOI · Paper page
  86. Beezhold, 2015, Vegans report less stress and anxiety than omnivores, Nutr. Neurosci., 18, 289, 10.1179/1476830514Y.0000000164 · DOI
  87. Dobersek, U., Wy, G., Adkins, J., Altmeyer, S., Krout, K., Lavie, C.J., and Archer, E. (2020). Meat and mental health: A systematic review of meat abstention and depression, anxiety, and related phenomena. Crit. Rev. Food Sci., 1–14. · DOI
  88. Beezhold, 2012, Restriction of meat, fish, and poultry in omnivores improves mood: A pilot randomized controlled trial, Nutr. J., 11, 9, 10.1186/1475-2891-11-9 · DOI
  89. Aslanifar, E., Fakhri, M.K., Mirzaian, B., and Kafaki, H.B. (2014, January 8–10). The comparison of personality traits and happiness of vegetarians and non-vegetarians. Proceedings of the SOCIOINT14-International Conference on Social Sciences and Humanities, Istanbul, Turkey.
  90. Bogueva, 2020, Who needs to solve the vegetarian men dilemma?, J. Hum. Behav. Soc. Environ., 30, 28, 10.1080/10911359.2019.1664966 · DOI
  91. Perry, 2001, Characteristics of vegetarian adolescents in a multiethnic urban population, J. Adolesc. Health, 29, 406, 10.1016/S1054-139X(01)00258-0 · DOI
  92. Karabudak, 2005, Vegetarianism and eating disorders: Association between eating attitudes and other psychological factors among Turkish adolescents, Appetite, 44, 309, 10.1016/j.appet.2005.02.002 · DOI
  93. Fox, 2008, You are what you eat? Vegetarianism, health and identity, Soc. Sci. Med., 66, 2585, 10.1016/j.socscimed.2008.02.011 · DOI
  94. Hoek, 2004, Food-related lifestyle and health attitudes of Dutch vegetarians, non-vegetarian consumers of meat substitutes, and meat consumers, Appetite, 42, 265, 10.1016/j.appet.2003.12.003 · DOI · Paper page
  95. Hibbeln, 2018, Vegetarian diets and depressive symptoms among men, J. Affect. Disord., 225, 13, 10.1016/j.jad.2017.07.051 · DOI
  96. Matta, J., Czernichow, S., Kesse-Guyot, E., Hoertel, N., Limosin, F., Goldberg, M., Zins, M., and Lemogne, C. (2018). Depressive symptoms and vegetarian diets: Results from the constances cohort. Nutrients, 10. · DOI
  97. Stanger, 2009, Homocysteine, folate and vitamin B12 in neuropsychiatric diseases: Review and treatment recommendations, Expert Rev. Neurother., 9, 1393, 10.1586/ern.09.75 · DOI
  98. Adjibade, 2018, Prospective association between adherence to the Mediterranean diet and risk of depressive symptoms in the French SU. VI. MAX cohort, Eur. J. Nutr., 57, 1225, 10.1007/s00394-017-1405-3 · DOI
  99. Cooper, 2012, Creatine supplementation with specific view to exercise/sports performance: An update, J. Int. Soc. Sport Nutr., 9, 1, 10.1186/1550-2783-9-33 · DOI · Paper page
  100. Rawson, 2003, Effects of creatine supplementation and resistance training on muscle strength and weightlifting performance, J. Strength Cond. Res., 17, 822
  101. Geiselman, 1982, The role of carbohydrates in appetite, hunger and obesity, Appetite, 3, 203, 10.1016/S0195-6663(82)80017-2 · DOI
  102. Liu, 2001, Dietary carbohydrates, physical inactivity, obesity, and the ‘metabolic syndrome’as predictors of coronary heart disease, Curr. Opin. Lipidol., 12, 395, 10.1097/00041433-200108000-00005 · DOI
  103. 2004, Carbohydrates and increases in obesity: Does the type of carbohydrate make a difference?, Obes. Res., 12, 124S
  104. Fessler, 2003, Disgust sensitivity and meat consumption: A test of an emotivist account of moral vegetarianism, Appetite, 41, 31, 10.1016/S0195-6663(03)00037-0 · DOI
  105. Flaxman, 2000, Morning sickness: A mechanism for protecting mother and embryo, Q. Rev. Biol., 75, 113, 10.1086/393377 · DOI · Paper page
  106. Mennella, 2001, Prenatal and postnatal flavor learning by human infants, Pediatrics, 107, e88, 10.1542/peds.107.6.e88 · DOI · Paper page
  107. Mennella, 1999, Experience with a flavor in mother’s milk modifies the infant’s acceptance of flavored cereal, Dev. Psychobiol., 35, 197, 10.1002/(SICI)1098-2302(199911)35:3<197::AID-DEV4>3.0.CO;2-J · DOI
  108. Modlinska, 2015, Food neophobia in wild and laboratory rats (multi-strain comparison), Behav. Process., 113, 41, 10.1016/j.beproc.2014.12.005 · DOI

Cited by

See all 142

Metadata

Authors
Modlinska, K., Adamczyk, D., Maison, D., & Pisula, W.
Venue
Sustainability
Publisher
MDPI AG
Published
2020-08-05
Volume
12
Issue
16
Pages
6292
ISSN
2071-1050
DOI
10.3390/su12166292
Cited by
142
References
5
Language
en
Licence
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ (vor)
Funders
Narodowe Centrum Nauki (UMO-2017/27/B/HS6/01197)

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review

Data sources

Bibliographic data: Semantic Scholar, OpenAlex, Crossref.

Contains information from the Semantic Scholar Academic Graph Datasets, made available under the ODC Attribution License (ODC-BY 1.0).

Semantic Scholar’s data is described in: Kinney, R., et al. (2023). The Semantic Scholar Open Data Platform. arXiv:2301.10140.