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Cited by 158Electric and Hybrid Vehicle TechnologiesElectric Vehicles and InfrastructureVehicle emissions and performance

Effect of Ambient Temperature on Electric Vehicles’ Energy Consumption and Range: Model Definition and Sensitivity Analysis Based on Nissan Leaf Data

Open access
Iora, Paolo, Tribioli, Laura·2019·World Electric Vehicle Journal
DOI 10.3390/wevj10010002
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Abstract

In this paper, a general quasi-steady backward-looking model for energy consumption estimation of electric vehicles is presented. The model is based on a literature review of existing approaches and was set up using publicly available data for Nissan Leaf. The model has been used to assess the effect of ambient temperature on energy consumption and range, considering various reference driving cycles. The results are supported and validated using data available from an experimental campaign where the Nissan Leaf was driven to depletion across a broad range of winter ambient temperatures. The effect of ambient temperature and the consequent accessories consumption due to cabin heating are shown to be remarkable. For instance, in case of Federal Urban Driving Schedule (FUDS), simplified FUDS (SFUDS), and New European Driving Cycle (NEDC) driving cycles, the range exceeds 150 km at 20 °C, while it reduces to about 85 km and 60 km at 0 °C and −15 °C, respectively. Finally, a sensitivity analysis is reported to assess the impact of the hypotheses in the battery model and of making different assumptions on the regenerative braking efficiency.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

The paper develops a quasi-steady backward-looking model for battery electric vehicle energy consumption, calibrated with publicly available Nissan Leaf data, and uses it to assess how ambient temperature and cabin heating affect energy use and range. Validation against a winter experimental campaign shows large range reductions at low ambient temperatures, and sensitivity analysis examines battery Peukert constant and regenerative braking assumptions.

Key findings

  • For FUDS, SFUDS, and NEDC driving cycles, simulated range exceeds 150 km at 20 °C, falls to about 85 km at 0 °C, and to about 60 km at −15 °C; for FIGE, range is 171 km at 20 °C, 122 km at 0 °C, and 88 km at −15 °C.
  • Accessory consumption due to cabin heating is modeled as decreasing linearly from 6000 W at −15 °C to 200 W at 20 °C, and the paper states its effect on range is remarkable.
  • Sensitivity to the Peukert constant \(k\) changes range by about 5% to 20% depending on driving cycle and ambient temperature, with the highest variation of 21% for FUDS at 20 °C.
  • Neglecting regenerative braking (\( \eta_{rb}=0 \)) reduces range at 20 °C relative to the reference case: SFUDS from 160 km to 120 km (−25%), FUDS from 158 km to 115 km (−27%), NEDC from 154 km to 124 km (−20%), and FIGE from 172 km to 160 km (−6%); assumptions with \( \eta_{rb}=1 \) and literature models are very close.

Methods

  • A quasi-steady backward-looking Matlab model computes wheel power from rolling resistance, aerodynamic drag, grading resistance, and acceleration, then applies transmission, motor/generator, accessory, and battery sub-models; parameters are set using public Nissan Leaf data and literature assumptions.
  • Validation uses an experimental campaign in which a Nissan Leaf was driven to depletion across winter ambient temperatures in Winnipeg, MB, Canada, on routes with speed limits of 50, 60, 70, and 80 km/h and average speed of 35–40 km/h; simulations use FUDS, SFUDS, NEDC, and FIGE cycles, ambient temperatures from −15 to +20 °C, full initial charge, and end at SOC = 0.1.
  • Sensitivity analysis varies the battery Peukert constant \(k\) (Li-ion range 1.0–1.08; chosen \(k=1.03\)) and regenerative braking efficiency assumptions, including \( \eta_{rb}=0 \), \( \eta_{rb}=1 \), an acceleration-dependent exponential model, a speed-dependent model, and a 20 kW maximum regenerative power limit.

Limitations

  • The paper states that the driving cycle data from the experimental analysis were not available, so standard cycles of similar topology were used to reproduce the experimental driving conditions.
  • The paper states that model assumptions were selected to best fit the experimental data and that sensitivity analysis was carried out only on two key parameters, the Peukert constant \(k\) and regenerative braking efficiency \( \eta_{rb} \).
  • Evident from the text: validation relies on one experimental campaign and one vehicle model (Nissan Leaf), accessory consumption is represented by a simple linear function of ambient temperature, and the paper does not include a dedicated limitations section.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.3390/wevj10010002

Cites

41 of 41 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

1 of 12 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured

  • Premisecitation

    Cabin heating systems based on electrical resistive heating, rather than a heat pump, worsen the effect, as in the Mitsubishi i-MiEV and Nissan Leaf.

    “Things obviously get worse when the main cabin heating systems are based on electrical resistive heating, rather than a heat pump [24,25], as in the case of the popular Mitsubishi i-MiEV [26] and Nissan Leaf electric cars [27].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 4 sources checked
    • cites [24] Bellocchi, 2018, Reversible heat pump HVAC system with regenerative heat exchanger for electric vehicles: Analysis of its impact on driving range, Appl. Therm. Eng. source

      The indexed 'Abstract' passage is repository metadata, and the file-listing passages identify PDFs but provide no article text or page numbers. Searches for resistive cabin heating versus heat pumps and its effect on driving range returned no passage addressing the comparison attributed to this source. The vehicle examples have separate citations in the citing sentence. (LLM, conf=0.74)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [25] Zhou, 2017, Experimental study on combined defrosting performance of heat pump air conditioning system for pure electric vehicle in low temperature, Appl. Therm. Eng. source
    • cites [26] Kohei, U., and Noyama, H. (2010, January 13–15). Air-conditioning system for electric vehicles (i-MiEV). Proceedings of the SAE Automotive Refrigerant & System Efficiency Symposium, Scottsdale, AZ, USA.

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [27] Rizalino, 2016, Winter Happens: The Effect of Ambient Temperature on the Travel Range of Electric Vehicles, IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol. source
  • Findingown data

    Vehicle simulations with FUDS and SFUDS driving cycles show good agreement with the experimental data.

    “vehicle simulations are first carried out considering the FUDS (v max = 91 km/h, v av = 32 km/h) and SFUDS (v max = 87 km/h, v av = 31 km/h) driving cycles, showing a good agreement with the experimental data”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    The highest difference (about 5 km) between case (e) and case (b) is observed only with NEDC.

    “while the highest difference (about 5 km) is observed only with NEDC.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    The effect of accessories consumption due to cabin heating as ambient temperature varies is remarkable.

    “The effect of the accessories consumption due to cabin heating as ambient temperature varies is remarkable.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    In the FUDS, SFUDS, and NEDC driving cycles, the range reduces to about 85 km at 0°C.

    “while it reduces to about 85 km and 60 km at 0 • C and -15 • C, respectively.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • May combine two claims. 6
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 3

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    For FUDS, SFUDS, and NEDC driving cycles, the simulated range exceeds 150 km at 20°C, reduces to about 85 km at 0°C, and about 60 km at -15°C.

    “For instance, in case of Federal Urban Driving Schedule (FUDS), simplified FUDS (SFUDS), and New European Driving Cycle (NEDC) driving cycles, the range exceeds 150 km at 20 • C, while it reduces to about 85 km and 60 km at 0 • C and -15 • C, respectively.”
    • Also stated in: § 3. Model Validation · plain
      “In the cases of FUDS, SFUDS, and NEDC, the range exceeds 150 km at 20 • C, while it reduces to about 85 km and 60 km at 0 • C and -15 • C, respectively.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: The accessory power consumption P_Acc varies linearly with ambient temperature, from 6000 W at -15°C to 200 W at 20°C when the HVAC system is off.
    • The authors state this as an assumption: The regenerative braking efficiency η_rb is a function of acceleration and follows the exponential relationship η_rb = e^(0.0411|a|)-1.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Findingnone given

    The results available in literature are found to be very close to the assumption of ηrb = 1.

    “In particular, the results available in literature are found to be very close to the assumption of η rb = 1.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The impact of the battery Peukert constant k on driving range is appreciable, varying from about 5% to 20% depending on driving cycle and ambient temperature, with the highest variation of 21% in the FUDS cycle at 20°C.

    “It can be noted that the impact of k on range is appreciable, varying from about 5% to 20% depending on the driving cycle and ambient temperature, with the highest variation of 21% obtained in the case of FUDS cycle at 20 • C (Figures 456).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    For the FIGE cycle, the simulated range is 171 km at 20°C, 122 km at 0°C, and 88 km at -15°C.

    “In the case of FIGE, the range is 171 km at 20 • C, 122 km at 0 • C, and 88 km at -15 • C.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: The accessory power consumption P_Acc varies linearly with ambient temperature, from 6000 W at -15°C to 200 W at 20°C when the HVAC system is off.
    • The authors state this as an assumption: The regenerative braking efficiency η_rb is a function of acceleration and follows the exponential relationship η_rb = e^(0.0411|a|)-1.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Simplified backward-looking models are considered sufficiently accurate for range evaluation and have advantages of higher flexibility, lower computational effort, and requiring knowledge of a smaller number of input data.

    “At the same time, for range evaluation purposes, simplified backward looking models are considered sufficiently accurate, and have the advantages of higher flexibility, lower computational effort, and requiring the knowledge of a smaller number of input data [35].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [35] Sarrafan, 2017, Accurate range estimation for an electric vehicle including changing environmental conditions and traction system efficiency, IET Electr. Syst. Transp. source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    The model's assumptions were analyzed and selected to best fit the experimental data employed for validation.

    “These are based on a rather wide range of assumptions, which, in the present work, have been accurately analyzed and selected in order to best fit the experimental data employed for the validation (Figure 3).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    In cold weather, unlike fossil fuel-powered vehicles, the thermal energy available from the electric motor is not able to meet heating demands, and heating energy consumption can significantly affect BEV range.

    “This aspect becomes critic in cold weather; unlike fossil fuel-powered vehicles, the thermal energy available from the electric motor is not able to meet heating demands in winter and the energy consumption related to heating can significantly affect the vehicle performance in terms of range.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    Compared with FUDS, SFUDS is characterized by a similar average speed, the same proportion of stationary time, and the same maximum acceleration and braking, thus providing generally very similar results when used for simulating vehicle range.

    “Compared with FUDS, it is characterized by a similar average speed, the same proportion of stationary time, and the same maximum acceleration and braking, thus providing generally very similar results when used for simulating vehicle range.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [36] Larminie, J., and Lowry, J. (2012). Electric Vehicle Technology Explained, John Wiley & Sons Ltd. source
    • cites [43] Brandt, 1992, Driving cycle testing of electric vehicle batteries and systems, J. Power Sources source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Values of the Peukert constant k for Li-ion batteries typically vary in the range 1.0-1.08.

    “Values of k, according to the authors of [41], in the case of Li-ion batteries, typically vary in the range of 1.0-1.08.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [41] Omar, 2012, Rechargeable Energy Storage Systems for Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles—Assessment of Electrical Characteristics, Energies source
9 of 9

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    The accessory power consumption P_Acc varies linearly with ambient temperature, from 6000 W at -15°C to 200 W at 20°C when the HVAC system is off.

    “where P Acc is assumed to be a linear decreasing function of the ambient temperature, ranging from a maximum value of 6000 W at T amb = -15 • C to a minimum value of 200 W at T amb = 20 • C, when the HVAC system is turned off.”
    “Accessories consumption varies linearly from 6000 W at -15 • C with heating at full power to 200 W at 20 • C when the heating is switched off.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    The regenerative braking efficiency η_rb is a function of acceleration and follows the exponential relationship η_rb = e^(0.0411|a|)-1.

    “In the present analysis, the approach proposed by the authors of [1] was applied, where the regenerative braking efficiency η rb is assumed to be a function of acceleration (always negative when braking).”
    “The following exponential relationship, calibrated on empirical data on regenerative braking energy efficiency for a Chevy Volt vehicle, has thus been used: η rb = e ( 0.0411 |a(t)| ) -1(5)”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    The reduction in EV range as ambient temperature decreases is due to the accessory power required for cabin heating.

    “due to the consequent accessory power required for cabin heating, on energy consumption and range”
3 of 3

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • The two main factors influencing BEV range at low temperatures are heating energy requirements and the temperature sensitivity of Li-ion battery cells.

    “The two main factors influencing the range of BEVs at low temperatures are the heating energy requirements [11,13,14] and the temperature sensitivity of the Li-ion battery cells [15], which are used primarily in modern BEVs for energy storage.”

    From Effect of Low Temperature on Electric Vehicle Range (2021) · cites this paper as [11]

  • In BEVs, cabin heating energy demand must be supplied by the battery because less waste heat is available from the powertrain than in ICEVs, which adds to energy consumption and reduces range.

    “Since electric powertrains have a higher efficiency than conventional ones, BEVs have less waste heat available for cabin heating than ICEVs.”

    From Effect of Low Temperature on Electric Vehicle Range (2021) · cites this paper as [11]

  • These findings are in the same range as the simulated results by Horrein et al. [13], Ramsey et al. [14], Iora et al. [11], and Michaelides [20].

    “These findings are in the same range as the simulated results by Horrein et al. [13], Ramsey et al. [14], Iora et al. [11], and Michaelides [20].”

    From Effect of Low Temperature on Electric Vehicle Range (2021) · cites this paper as [11]

  • Besides trip characteristics and driving style, a BEV's range is primarily influenced by three factors: battery energy storage capacity, vehicle energy efficiency, and auxiliary energy consumption.

    “Besides trip characteristics and driving style, a BEV's range is primarily influenced by three factors: the amount of energy that can be stored in the vehicle's battery, the vehicle's energy efficiency [10], and the auxiliary energy consumption [11].”

    From Effect of Low Temperature on Electric Vehicle Range (2021) · cites this paper as [11]

  • The slightly lower proportion of heating energy in our results compared to Iora et al. [11], Ramsey et al. [14], and Michaelides [20] is due to all of them using standardized, less dynamic driving cycles or even constant speeds for their simulations.

    “The slightly lower proportion of heating energy in our results compared to Iora et al. [11], Ramsey et al. [14], and Michaelides [20] is due to all of them using standardized, less dynamic driving cycles or even constant speeds for their simulations.”

    From Effect of Low Temperature on Electric Vehicle Range (2021) · cites this paper as [11]

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Cited coauthor differs from the reference entry

    Minor

    The text attributes reference [36] to Larminie and Dicks, but the reference entry names Larminie and Lowry.

  • FIGE range advantage exceeds the stated 20-25 km

    Minor

    At 0 °C, the paper gives a FIGE range of 122 km and a range of about 85 km for FUDS, SFUDS, and NEDC. The difference is about 37 km, exceeding the stated upper bound of 25 km.

    Reported 25 · recomputed 37

2 of 2

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 1

  1. Kohei, U., and Noyama, H. (2010, January 13–15). Air-conditioning system for electric vehicles (i-MiEV). Proceedings of the SAE Automotive Refrigerant & System Efficiency Symposium, Scottsdale, AZ, USA.

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Iora, P., & Tribioli, L.
Affiliations
  • University of Brescia (IT)
  • University Niccolò Cusano (IT)
Corresponding author
Tribioli, Laura
ORCID
Venue
World Electric Vehicle Journal
Publisher
MDPI AG
Published
2019-01-07
Volume
10
Issue
1
Pages
2
ISSN
2032-6653 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.3390/wevj10010002
OpenAlex
W2907184419
Cited by
158
References
39
Citations by year
2026: 15 · 2025: 19 · 2024: 28 · 2023: 27 · 2022: 21 · 2021: 26 · 2020: 15 · 2019: 7
FWCI
7.97
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • World Electric Vehicle Journal (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
  • Institutional Research Information System (Università degli Studi di Brescia) (submittedVersion)
Funders
Università degli Studi di Brescia
Topics
  • Physical Sciences › Engineering › Automotive Engineering › Electric and Hybrid Vehicle Technologies
  • Physical Sciences › Engineering › Electrical and Electronic Engineering › Electric Vehicles and Infrastructure
  • Physical Sciences › Engineering › Automotive Engineering › Vehicle emissions and performance
Keywords
electric vehicles, ambient temperature, energy consumption, driving range, Nissan Leaf, cabin heating, battery model, driving cycles, sensitivity analysis, winter driving

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