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Cited by 122Electric and Hybrid Vehicle TechnologiesAdvanced Battery Technologies ResearchElectric Vehicles and Infrastructure

Effect of Low Temperature on Electric Vehicle Range

Open access
Steinstraeter, Matthias, Heinrich, Tobias, Lienkamp, Markus·2021·World Electric Vehicle Journal
DOI 10.3390/wevj12030115
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Abstract

A significant disadvantage of battery electric vehicles compared to vehicles with internal combustion engines is their sharply decreased driving range at low temperatures. Two factors are primarily responsible for this decreased range. On the one hand, the energy demand of cabin heating needs to be supplied by the vehicle’s battery since less waste heat is available from the powertrain, which could be used to cover heating demands. On the other hand, a limited capability to recuperate at low temperatures serves to protect the battery from accelerated aging, which ultimately leads to less energy regeneration. This paper analyzes the impact of both factors separately on a battery electric vehicle’s driving range. Additionally, this paper provides technical requirements for the implementation of an electrothermal recuperation system. Such a system has the potential to reduce the impact of both abovementioned factors on driving range by enabling the direct usage of regeneratable energy for heating when battery charging is limited under cold conditions. The presented analysis is based on BMW i3 and Tesla Model 3 datasets, which combined cover more than 125 trips in and around Munich at different ambient conditions. The results show that the range can decrease by up to 31.9% due to heating and by up to 21.7% due to limited recuperation, which gives a combined maximum range decrease of approximately 50% under cold conditions. Additionally, it was found that a heater with a short reaction time in the lower millisecond range and a power capability of 20 kW would be sufficient for an electrothermal recuperation system to enable the utilization of unused regenerative braking potentials directly for heating.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This paper separates the effects of cabin heating and limited regenerative braking on battery electric vehicle range under cold conditions using real-world BMW i3 and Tesla Model 3 driving data. It finds heating can reduce range by up to 31.9% and limited recuperation by up to 21.7%, giving a combined maximum reduction of approximately 50%, and derives requirements for an electrothermal recuperation system.

Key findings

  • Heating energy demand can cut a BEV’s range by up to 31.9% (Tesla Model 3) and 30.0% (BMW i3) of total trip energy, i.e., almost one third.
  • Recuperated energy can cover up to 42.2% (Tesla) and 38.6% (BMW) of traction-system energy demand; if recuperation were disabled for a whole trip, theoretical range loss could reach about 42%, but practical measured range reductions due to limited recuperation were up to 21.7% (Tesla rural trip) and 8.33% (BMW FTM trip comparison).
  • Regenerative braking power is limited below 10 °C, with an approximately linear dependence on battery temperature; above 10 °C no significant limitation was detected. Tesla enabled regenerative braking at −4 °C, while the lowest measured BMW battery temperature with recuperation was −1.5 °C.
  • Combined heating and limited-recuperation effects can reduce range by approximately 50% under cold conditions. An electrothermal recuperation system would need response times in the lower millisecond range and power capability of 20 kW.

Methods

  • Real-world driving logs from a 2014 BMW i3 and a 2020 Tesla Model 3 in and around Munich, covering more than 125 trips; all trips used the same driver, with cabin temperature set to 22 °C and automatic mode. Random trips included 68 BMW and 44 Tesla trips; designed routes included 9 BMW FTM-route trips and Tesla city/rural/highway routes (3, 5, and 5 trips).
  • Two-stage analysis: a general analysis of all trips and a detailed same-route comparison. Heating energy share (HS) was computed from heater current/voltage divided by battery discharge energy; recuperation energy share (RS) was computed from battery charge energy divided by traction-system energy demand.
  • Recuperation analysis used a clustering algorithm to identify maximum regenerative braking power versus battery temperature (1 °C step), and a longitudinal dynamics simulation to predict regenerative braking potential. The simulation used speed and altitude signals, Gaussian smoothing with bandwidth b = 16, and a reverse-engineered CAD drivetrain moment of inertia of 10.42 kg·m². Trip parameters included regenerative braking performance (RP), potential regenerative braking share (PRS), measured range reduction (MRR), and unused range potential (URP).

Limitations

  • Stated: the available dataset does not allow detailed analysis of how weather conditions affect heating requirements; this remains open for further research.
  • Stated: MRR has uncertainty because trip characteristics (velocity and acceleration) and powertrain efficiency can vary between trips on the same route, so the absolute traction energy demand may not be identical.
  • Stated: URP is theoretical because it assumes 100% powertrain efficiency.
  • Stated: no exact minimum battery temperature for allowing recuperation could be determined for the BMW i3 due to lack of operating data at lower temperatures.
  • Stated: ETR range regain is restricted by the limited energy storage capability of the heating circuit and the heater’s inability to utilize peak recuperation powers above 20 kW.
  • Stated: extreme cold conditions such as −26 °C were not investigated, though trends suggest heating energy share would be higher at such temperatures.
  • Evident from the text: the study is based on only two vehicle models, one driver, and routes in and around Munich, which limits generalizability; the BMW cold-condition recuperation duration analysis also relies on a small database in that range.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.3390/wevj12030115

Cites

35 of 36 references verified0 citation errors · 1 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

21 of 47 cited sources checked · 14 supported · 1 flagged · accuracy not yet measured

  • Premisecitation

    A Li-ion cell's capacity can drop by up to 23% at -20°C compared to 25°C.

    “Similar research shows that a cell's capacity can drop by up to 23% at -20 • C compared to the capacity at 25 • C [25].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [25] Aris, 2017, An Experimental Study of a Lithium Ion Cell Operation at Low Temperature Conditions, Energy Procedia source

      Section 2.2 (page not provided) reports that the cell’s state of charge fell from 100% to 77% at −15°C—a 23% drop—and compares subzero performance with 25°C. The experiments covered only −15°C to 25°C, so the paper does not establish a 23% capacity drop at the claimed −20°C. (LLM, conf=0.89)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Premisecitation

    Limited driving range per charge and associated range anxiety are one of the biggest barriers for customers against adopting BEVs.

    “In the particular case of battery electric vehicles (BEVs), the limited driving range per charge, coupled with the associated range anxiety, is one of the biggest barriers for customers today against adopting EVs [5][6][7][8][9].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim3 of 5 sources checked
    • cites [5] Hathaway, Z., Polis, H., Loomis, J., Boroski, J., Milano, A., and Ouyang, J. (2021). A Utility Roadmap for Expanding Customer Adoption of Electric Vehicles. World Electr. Veh. J., 12. source

      The Introduction identifies driving range as a key EV-adoption barrier. However, §3.3.3 says range has become less of a barrier and affordability remains the greatest barrier; the Discussion likewise says battery range is becoming less of a concern. The paper does not establish that range anxiety is currently one of the biggest barriers specifically for BEV customers. (LLM, conf=0.86)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [6] Bonges, 2016, Addressing electric vehicle (EV) sales and range anxiety through parking layout, policy and regulation, Transp. Res. Part A Policy Pract. source
    • cites [7] Adhikari, M., Ghimire, L.P., Kim, Y., Aryal, P., and Khadka, S.B. (2020). Identification and Analysis of Barriers against Electric Vehicle Use. Sustainability, 12. source
    • cites [8] Geotab Inc. (2020). Addressing the Barriers to EV Adoption, Geotab Inc.

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [9] She, 2017, What are the barriers to widespread adoption of battery electric vehicles? A survey of public perception in Tianjin, China, Transp. Policy source
  • Interpretationreasoning

    The slightly lower proportion of heating energy in our results compared to Iora et al. [11], Ramsey et al. [14], and Michaelides [20] is due to all of them using standardized, less dynamic driving cycles or even constant speeds for their simulations.

    “The slightly lower proportion of heating energy in our results compared to Iora et al. [11], Ramsey et al. [14], and Michaelides [20] is due to all of them using standardized, less dynamic driving cycles or even constant speeds for their simulations.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [11] Iora, P., and Tribioli, L. (2019). Effect of Ambient Temperature on Electric Vehicles’ Energy Consumption and Range: Model Definition and Sensitivity Analysis Based on Nissan Leaf Data. World Electr. Veh. J., 10. source
    • cites [14] Ramsey, D., Bouscayrol, A., Boulon, L., and Vaudrey, A. (2020, January 25–28). Simulation of an electric vehicle to study the impact of cabin heating on the driving range. Proceedings of the 2020 IEEE 91st Vehicular Technology Conference (VTC2020-Spring), Online. source
    • cites [20] Michaelides, 2020, Thermodynamics and energy usage of electric vehicles, Energy Convers. Manag. source
  • Premisecitation

    A BEV's ability to recuperate is strongly dependent on battery temperature.

    “Steinstraeter et al. [28] showed that a BEV's ability to recuperate is strongly dependent on the battery's temperature.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [28] Steinstraeter, M., Lewke, M., Buberger, J., Hentrich, T., and Lienkamp, M. (2020). Range Extension via Electrothermal Recuperation. World Electr. Veh. J., 11. source
  • Premisecitation

    Due to the high thermal capacity of the simulated brake resistor, range can even decrease at medium temperatures.

    “Furthermore, due to the high thermal capacity of the simulated brake resistor, range can even decrease at medium temperatures.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [30] Lieb, 2013, Potential of an electric brake resistor to increase the efficiency of electric vehicles, World Electr. Veh. J. source

      Section 2.1.2 models the brake resistor’s heat capacity, and the Discussion says it offers no energetic advantage under many conditions. Neither passage says that its thermal capacity causes a decrease in driving range at medium temperatures; searches for a range or efficiency decrease did not locate that result in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.72)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • May combine two claims. 33
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 24

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Lieb et al. set the battery's charging capability to zero and did not consider that the battery can still be charged at cold temperatures even though charging is limited.

    “However, they set the battery's charging capability to zero and did not consider that the battery can still be charged at cold temperatures even though charging is limited.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [30] Lieb, 2013, Potential of an electric brake resistor to increase the efficiency of electric vehicles, World Electr. Veh. J. source

      Section 2.2.2 says the battery’s charging ability is strongly limited at low temperatures, not set to zero. Section 2.2.1 says the simulation models the battery-dependent availability of recuperation, and Section 3 states that recuperation is never fully restricted. The paper therefore considers limited charging rather than ignoring it. (LLM, conf=0.88)

      Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • Rests on an assumption: The battery can still be charged at cold temperatures even though charging is limited.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Cold conditions cause declined reactivity and diminished ionic conductivity in Li-ion cells, affecting their usable capacity and impedance.

    “Cold conditions cause declined reactivity and diminished ionic conductivity in Li-ion cells [15,21], which affects their usable capacity [22] and impedance [23].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim2 of 4 sources checked
    • cites [15] Ma, 2018, Temperature effect and thermal impact in lithium-ion batteries: A review, Prog. Nat. Sci. Mater. Int. source
    • cites [21] Habedank, 2019, Enhanced Fast Charging and Reduced Lithium-Plating by Laser-Structured Anodes for Lithium-Ion Batteries, J. Electrochem. Soc. source
    • cites [22] Zhu, 2015, Materials insights into low-temperature performances of lithium-ion batteries, J. Power Sources source
    • cites [23] Guo, S., Liu, Y., and Li, L. (2017, January 3–5). Study on the performance of lithium-ion batteries at different temperatures. Proceedings of the 2017 7th International Conference on Mechatronics, Computer and Education Informationization (MCEI 2017), Shenyang, China. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    A limited capability to recuperate at low temperatures serves to protect the battery from accelerated aging, leading to less energy regeneration.

    “On the other hand, a limited capability to recuperate at low temperatures serves to protect the battery from accelerated aging, which ultimately leads to less energy regeneration.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [28] Steinstraeter, M., Lewke, M., Buberger, J., Hentrich, T., and Lienkamp, M. (2020). Range Extension via Electrothermal Recuperation. World Electr. Veh. J., 11. source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Lieb et al. demonstrated a regained range potential at low temperatures of up to 8% by implementing an electrothermal recuperation system in simulation.

    “Lieb et al. [30] could demonstrate a regained range potential at low temperatures of up to 8% by implementing such an electrothermal recuperation (ETR) system in their simulation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [30] Lieb, 2013, Potential of an electric brake resistor to increase the efficiency of electric vehicles, World Electr. Veh. J. source

      The Introduction says the brake-resistor approach could mitigate the effect of low temperatures on driving range, and §3 reports simulated efficiency gains at low temperatures. But our copy does not report a regained driving range of up to 8%: the Abstract gives up to 12% lower total energy demand, while §3 describes up to 14% lower net energy demand under selected conditions. No page numbers are available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.88)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Under extreme cold conditions (-40°C), a Li-ion cell can lose up to 95% of its energy and more than 98% of its power capability compared to performance at 25°C.

    “Nagasubramanian et al. [24] showed that under extreme cold conditions (-40 • C) a Li-ion cell can lose up to 95% of its energy and more than 98% of its power capability compared to performance levels at 25 • C.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [24] Nagasubramanian, 2001, Electrical characteristics of 18650 Li-ion cells at low temperatures, J. Appl. Electrochem. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    In BEVs, cabin heating energy demand must be supplied by the battery because less waste heat is available from the powertrain than in ICEVs, which adds to energy consumption and reduces range.

    “Since electric powertrains have a higher efficiency than conventional ones, BEVs have less waste heat available for cabin heating than ICEVs.”
    • Also stated in: § 1. Introduction · plain
      “As their power is supplied by the vehicle's battery, this adds to the amount of energy consumption and thus affects the BEVs range [11,17].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim3 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [16] Doruk, 2016, New Heating System Development Working with Waste Heat for Electric Vehicles, Transp. Res. Procedia source
    • cites [11] Iora, P., and Tribioli, L. (2019). Effect of Ambient Temperature on Electric Vehicles’ Energy Consumption and Range: Model Definition and Sensitivity Analysis Based on Nissan Leaf Data. World Electr. Veh. J., 10. source
    • cites [17] Dvorak, D., Basciotti, D., and Gellai, I. (2020). Demand-Based Control Design for Efficient Heat Pump Operation of Electric Vehicles. Energies, 13. source

      Section 1.2 says BEVs lack the engine waste heat available to conventional ICE vehicles and must draw battery energy for heating, reducing range. It does not state that the difference is caused by electric powertrains’ higher efficiency, as the citing sentence asserts. No page number is available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.83)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The vehicle could regenerate no more than approximately 16% of the traction energy required for the colder trip, while the figure increases to almost one fourth for the warmer trip.

    “While the vehicle could regenerate no more than approximately 16% of the traction energy required for the colder trip, the figure increases to almost one fourth for the warmer trip.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Findingnone given

    The general drivetrain design concepts and architectures of both test vehicles are the same.

    “Since the general drivetrain design concepts and architectures of both test vehicles are the same, it was possible to merge the data (Table 1).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    Warmer trips require more heating energy, both in absolute and relative terms, which appears implausible at first sight.

    “The warmer trips require more heating energy, both in absolute and relative terms, which appears implausible at first sight.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The vehicle could have gained an additional range advantage of 11.74% for FTM Trip 06 and 15.11% for FTM Trip 07 when it would have used the respective predicted regenerative braking potential to the fullest (assumption: powertrain efficiency of 100%).

    “The URP shows that the vehicle could have gained an additional range advantage of 11.74% for the FTM Trip 06 and 15.11% for FTM Trip 07 when it would have used the respective predicted regenerative braking potential to the fullest (assumption: powertrain efficiency of 100%).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: The powertrain efficiency is 100% for the URP additional range advantage calculations.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The energy used for heating can total up to a maximum of 31.9% (Tesla) and 30.0% (BMW) of the total energy required for a trip.

    “In our analysis we found that the energy used for heating can total up to a maximum of 31.9% (Tesla) and 30.0%(BMW) of the total energy required for a trip.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The recuperated energy can cover up to 42.2% (Tesla) and 38.6% (BMW) of the traction system's energy requirements.

    “Our analysis showed that the recuperated energy can cover up to 42.2% (Tesla) and 38.6% (BMW) of the traction system's energy requirements.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    In the BMW i3, the power is between 2.5 kW and 5 kW for about 10% of recuperations, with only little recuperation occurring in higher power ranges.

    “In the BMW i3, the power is between 2.5 kW and 5 kW for about 10% of recuperations, with only little recuperation occurring in higher power ranges.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Only rarely is a recuperation phase longer than 20 s, while 95% of the phases are shorter.

    “Only rarely is a recuperation phase longer than 20 s, while 95% of the phases are shorter.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    In the Tesla Model 3, recuperation phases with higher powers also occur, but recuperation with more than 20 kW hardly ever occurs.

    “In the Tesla, on the other hand, recuperation phases with higher powers also occur, but recuperation with more than 20 kW hardly ever occurs.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The Tesla recuperated highly efficiently under warm conditions, underlined by the URP of a mere 3.46% for Rural Trip R05.

    “The fact that the Tesla recuperated highly efficiently under warm conditions is also underlined by the URP of a mere 3.46% for Rural Trip R05.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The lower limits to allow any recuperation at all were -4°C (Tesla Model 3) and -1.5°C (BMW i3).

    “The lower limits to allow any recuperation at all were found to be -4 • C (Tesla Model 3) and -1.5 • C (BMW i3), while above 10 • C no significant recuperation power limitation could be identified for either vehicle.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    For the coldest of the three displayed trips (Trip R01), high amounts of unused regenerative braking potential are visible throughout the trip, but almost no unused regenerative braking potential can be identified for the warmest of the three rural trips (Trip R05).

    “While for the coldest of the three displayed trips (Trip R01), high amounts of unused regenerative braking potential are visible throughout the trip, but almost no unused regenerative braking potential can be identified for the warmest of the three rural trips (Trip R05).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    For the coldest trip, the visible regenerative braking restriction leads to a URP of 22.46%, and the inefficient usage of regenerative braking under cold conditions is reflected by the regenerative braking share of just 6.6%.

    “For the coldest trip, on the other hand, the visible regenerative braking restriction leads to a URP of 22.46%, and the inefficient usage of regenerative braking under cold conditions is also reflected by the regenerative braking share of just 6.6%.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The RS of Rural Trip 02 was 17.13%, and that of Rural Trip 05 was 28.3%.

    “Compared to the RS of Rural Trip 02, which was 17.13%, that of Rural Trip 05 was 28.3%.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Both Taggart and Delos Reyes assessed the total range reduction of BEVs under cold ambient conditions and did not distinguish between the different effects leading to the range reduction.

    “However, both authors assessed the total range reduction of BEV's under cold ambient conditions and they did not distinguish between the different effects leading to the range reduction.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [18] Taggart, J. (2017, January 22–24). Ambient Temperature Impacts on Real-World Electric Vehicle Efficiency & Range. Proceedings of the IEEE Transportation and Electrification Conference and Expo, Chicago, IL, USA. source
    • cites [19] Reyes, 2016, Winter Happens: The Effect of Ambient Temperature on the Travel Range of Electric Vehicles, IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol. source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Such low temperatures were not investigated as part of this study, but the trends displayed in Figure 4 indicate that the heating energy share would have been higher for our test vehicles at such low temperatures as well.

    “Such low temperatures were not investigated as part of this study, but the trends displayed in Figure 4 indicate that the heating energy share would have been higher for our test vehicles at such low temperatures as well.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    The data from trips on designed routes allows an extensive, comparative analysis of the low-temperature effects on the test vehicles' range.

    “While the data from trips on random routes allows just a limited, more general analysis, the data from trips on designed routes allows an extensive, comparative analysis of the low-temperature effects on the test vehicles' range.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Due to power losses during the recuperation process, the potential regenerative braking share (PRS) can never be fully achieved by a vehicle.

    “Due to power losses during the recuperation process, the PRS can never be fully achieved by a vehicle.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: The powertrain efficiency is at 100% for the potential regenerative braking share (PRS).

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Taggart analyzed over 10,000 Tesla Model S vehicles and observed energy consumption increases of up to 45% at -10°C, with short trips showing higher consumption due to transient heating of battery and cabin.

    “Taggart [18] analyzed over 10,000 Tesla Model S and observed energy consumption increases of up to 45% at -10 • C, whereas short trips in particular showed higher consumptions due to the transient heating up of the battery and cabin.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [18] Taggart, J. (2017, January 22–24). Ambient Temperature Impacts on Real-World Electric Vehicle Efficiency & Range. Proceedings of the IEEE Transportation and Electrification Conference and Expo, Chicago, IL, USA. source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductown data

    Noise filtering was applied to correct the observed physically implausible profile characteristics.

    “Filtering was applied to correct the observed physically implausible profile characteristics.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Low temperatures promote Li-plating, which can lead to a permanent reduction in cell performance.

    “Besides these temporary losses in cell performance, low temperatures also promote Li-plating, which can lead to a permanent reduction in cell performance [26].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [26] von Lüders, C. (2019). Experimentelle und simulative Untersuchung von Lithium-Plating und Lithium-Stripping in Lithium-Ionen-Zellen. [Ph.D. Thesis, Fakultät für Elektrotechnik und Informationstechnik—Lehrstuhl für Elektrische Energiespeichertechnik, Technische Universität München].

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    Knowledge of the drivetrain's moment of inertia is needed to accurately estimate the vehicle's driving resistance.

    “Knowledge of the drivetrain's moment of inertia is needed to accurately estimate the vehicle's driving resistance (Section 4.4.3).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationown data

    This research is specifically relevant for regions with similar or even colder climates than Central Europe because the data were collected in southern Germany.

    “Since the data used for this study was collected in southern Germany, this research is specifically relevant for regions with similar or even colder climates than Central Europe.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductreasoning

    Since heating is not considered in RS, the determined range reductions are theoretical.

    “However, since heating is not considered in RS, the determined range reductions are theoretical.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    Both factors restricting heat pump performance at low temperatures can be addressed by using an additional resistance heater to keep the heat pump's performance high and ensure unrestricted operation.

    “Both factors can be addressed by using an additional resistance heater to keep the heat pump's performance at any time at a high level and to ensure unrestricted operation under any conditions.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Heat pump performance at low temperatures is restricted by decreasing coefficient of performance and risk of freezing below the coolant's freezing point.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Delos Reyes et al. [19] determined their maximum range reduction under extreme cold conditions of -26°C.

    “Furthermore, Delos Reyes et al. [19] determined their maximum range reduction under extreme cold conditions of -26 • C.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [19] Reyes, 2016, Winter Happens: The Effect of Ambient Temperature on the Travel Range of Electric Vehicles, IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol. source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    All trips from both datasets were conducted by the same driver, which guarantees a consistent driving style within the database.

    “All trips from both datasets were conducted by the same driver, which guarantees a consistent driving style within the database.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductnone given

    The direct comparison of trips with the same vehicle on an identical route allows for the determination of measured and therefore practical range implications, particularly regarding limited recuperation.

    “The direct comparison of trips with the same vehicle on an identical route allows for the determination of measured and therefore practical range implications, particularly regarding limited recuperation.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Passenger comfort and weather conditions likely need to be considered when explaining the observed phenomenon of warmer trips requiring more heating energy.

    “However, it is likely that passenger comfort and weather conditions [45] also need to be considered when explaining the observed phenomenon.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [45] Mezrhab, 2006, Computation of thermal comfort inside a passenger car compartment, Appl. Therm. Eng. source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Michaelidis showed that a BEV's heating energy demand can be reduced by up to two-thirds when a heat pump is used instead of a resistance heater.

    “Michaelidis [20], for example, showed that a BEV's heating energy demand can be reduced by up to two-thirds when a heat pump is used instead of a resistance heater to supply the cabin with heat.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [20] Michaelides, 2020, Thermodynamics and energy usage of electric vehicles, Energy Convers. Manag. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    The data dispersion for similar temperatures in Figure 4 results from different trip durations and different weather conditions.

    “The data dispersion for similar temperatures in Figure 4 results from different trip durations and different weather conditions (see the subsequent detailed analysis).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    The results of Taggart [18] (45%) and Delos Reyes et al. [19] (70%) exceed our findings.

    “On the other hand, the results of Taggart [18] (45%) and specifically the results of Delos Reyes et al. [19] (70%), which are both based on experimental data as well, exceed our findings.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [18] Taggart, J. (2017, January 22–24). Ambient Temperature Impacts on Real-World Electric Vehicle Efficiency & Range. Proceedings of the IEEE Transportation and Electrification Conference and Expo, Chicago, IL, USA. source
    • cites [19] Reyes, 2016, Winter Happens: The Effect of Ambient Temperature on the Travel Range of Electric Vehicles, IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol. source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Auer et al. proposed a predictive thermal management system for BEVs that uses navigation information of planned trips to optimize the heating strategy.

    “Auer et al. [31] proposed a predictive thermal management system for battery electric vehicles, which utilizes navigation information of planned trips to optimize the heating strategy.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [31] Bargende, M., Reuss, H.-C., and Wiedemann, J. (2015). 15. Internationales Stuttgarter Symposium, Springer. source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Horrein et al. simulated that heating requirements can cut a BEV's range by up to 30%.

    “Horrein et al. [13] performed a simulation to show that heating requirements can cut a BEV's range by up to 30%, which is almost the same magnitude Michaelides [20] observed in his investigation simulating a sedan-style EV equipped with a resistance heater at 30 • C temperature difference between cabin and ambient.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [13] Horrein, 2017, Impact of Heating System on the Range of an Electric Vehicle, IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol. source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    A positive total driving resistance means the vehicle must supply power for propulsion, whereas a negative driving resistance means the vehicle has to supply braking power to explain the observed change in velocity.

    “Since steep slopes are not present on the roads driven on by the vehicles in the datasets, a positive total driving resistance means the vehicle must supply power for propulsion, whereas a negative driving resistance means the vehicle has to supply braking power to explain the observed change in velocity.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Steep slopes are not present on the roads driven on by the vehicles in the datasets.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    The trips within the database cover a wide range of ambient conditions and different battery temperatures, which is ideal for analyzing the effect of temperature on the vehicles' recuperation and heating behavior.

    “The trips within the database cover a wide range of ambient conditions as well as different battery temperatures, which is ideal for analyzing the effect of temperature on the vehicles' recuperation and heating behavior.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductreasoning

    A weighted moving average filter (Gaussian smoothing) was applied to the signals to capture and revise noise in dynamic sections without extensively disrupting the data.

    “We applied a weighted moving average filter (Gaussian smoothing) to the signals since this allows noise to be captured and revised in even more dynamic sections without extensively disrupting the information in the data.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    An electrothermal recuperation system requires response times in the lower millisecond range to capture short recuperation phases below 1 s.

    “Response times in the lower millisecond range: The system should have a fast response and a short ramp-up time to capture short recuperation phases below 1 s.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Technical requirements for an ETR-system to reduce the identified range losses were found to be a fast response time in the lower millisecond range and a power capability of 20 kW.

    “Technical requirements for an ETR-system to reduce the identified range losses were found to be a fast response time in the lower millisecond range and a power capability of 20 kW.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The two test vehicles (BMW i3 and Tesla Model 3) are representative of BEVs in general for the purpose of generalizing the findings.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The decrease of BEV range at low temperatures is mainly caused by heating energy demands, which need to be supplied by the battery, and the reduced recuperation capability to protect the battery against accelerated aging.

    “This is mainly caused by heating energy demands, which need to be supplied by the battery, and the reduced recuperation capability to protect the battery against accelerated aging.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    An electrothermal recuperation system requires power transformation capability of up to 20 kW.

    “Power transformation of up to 20 kW: The system should be able to transform up to 20 kW of electric power into heating power.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Such a heater needs to be controlled directly via CAN bus and not via CAN and LIN bus.

    “However, it should be noted that such a heater needs to be controlled directly via CAN bus and not, as is usually the case, via CAN and LIN bus.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Restrictions regarding the achievable range regain with such a system still apply due to the limited energy storage capability of the heating circuit and the inability of the heater to utilize peak recuperation potential powers.

    “Restrictions regarding the achievable range regain with such a system still apply due to the limited energy storage capability of the heating circuit and the inability of the heater to utilize peak recuperation potential powers.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The two test vehicles (BMW i3 and Tesla Model 3) are representative of BEVs in general for the purpose of generalizing the findings.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Other factors such as weather conditions are likely to impact heating energy demands as well.

    “other factors such as weather conditions are likely to impact the heating energy demands as well”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The two test vehicles (BMW i3 and Tesla Model 3) are representative of BEVs in general for the purpose of generalizing the findings.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    A rapid high power transformation cannot be implemented at the air conditioning compressor, but an ohmic resistance heater is able to represent such a power sink.

    “While a rapid high power transformation cannot be implemented at the air conditioning compressor, an ohmic resistance heater is able to represent such a power sink.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationown data

    The power of regenerative braking illustrates the effect of the one-pedal feeling.

    “The power of regenerative braking again illustrates the effect of the one-pedal feeling.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
52 of 52

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    This is the first paper to analyze the two main factors causing limited range of BEVs at low temperatures separately.

    “To the best of our knowledge, this is the first paper to analyze the two main factors causing a limited range of BEVs at low temperatures separately.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Heat pump performance at low temperatures is restricted by decreasing coefficient of performance and risk of freezing below the coolant's freezing point.

    “Firstly, the coefficient of performance (COP) decreases at lower temperatures, and secondly, heat pumps show a risk of freezing when the temperature drops below the coolant's freezing point.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The battery can still be charged at cold temperatures even though charging is limited.

    “However, they set the battery's charging capability to zero and did not consider that the battery can still be charged at cold temperatures even though charging is limited.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    There is a lack of available information in scientific publications on BEV drivetrain moments of inertia.

    “Due to the lack of available information in scientific publications on BEV drivetrain moments of inertia, we reverse-engineered a CAD model of a BEV drivetrain (Figure 3) on the basis of publicly available information.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    All drivetrain components are made from homogeneous materials with a material density of ρ_Comp.

    “All drivetrain components were assumed to be made from homogeneous materials with a material density of ρ Comp .”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Steep slopes are not present on the roads driven on by the vehicles in the datasets.

    “Since steep slopes are not present on the roads driven on by the vehicles in the datasets, a positive total driving resistance means the vehicle must supply power for propulsion, whereas a negative driving resistance means the vehicle has to supply braking power to explain the observed change in velocity.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Potential recuperation phases are present whenever the computed total driving resistance power P_DR is smaller than zero and the traction system current I_TS is smaller than or equal to zero.

    “Potential recuperation phases are assumed to be present whenever the computed total driving resistance power P DR (Equation ( 5)) is smaller than zero and when the traction system current I TS (Equation (11)) is smaller than or equal to zero.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    The powertrain efficiency is at 100% for the potential regenerative braking share (PRS).

    “This value assumes that the powertrain efficiency is at 100%, which makes it a theoretical number.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    The same assumption and uncertainty applies for the URP as for the MRR to allow the deduction of range implications based on energy share values.

    “For the URP, the same assumption and therefore also the same uncertainty applies as for the MRR to allow the deduction of range implications based on energy share values.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    The efficiency assumption for the PRS applies as well for the URP.

    “Additionally, the efficiency assumption for the PRS applies as well for the URP, which makes the URP also a theoretical value.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    The driver was the same for all trips, so passenger comfort can be neglected for explaining the phenomenon of warmer trips requiring more heating energy.

    “Since the driver was the same for all trips, it is assumed that the former factor can be neglected for explaining the phenomenon.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    The powertrain efficiency is 100% for the URP additional range advantage calculations.

    “The URP shows that the vehicle could have gained an additional range advantage of 11.74% for the FTM Trip 06 and 15.11% for FTM Trip 07 when it would have used the respective predicted regenerative braking potential to the fullest (assumption: powertrain efficiency of 100%).”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The range reductions from heating energy demands and limited recuperation are additive.

    “In total, range reductions of approximately.50% are possible at low temperatures due to the combination of both heating energy demands and limited recuperation.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The two test vehicles (BMW i3 and Tesla Model 3) are representative of BEVs in general for the purpose of generalizing the findings.

    “A BEV's maximum regenerative braking power capability depends on the battery temperature.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The longitudinal dynamics simulation accurately predicts the theoretically possible recuperation potential.

    “The predicted potential was determined by a longitudinal dynamics simulation for both vehicles.”
15 of 15

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Sakhdari and Azad citation points to a different author

    Minor

    The text identifies reference [46] as work by Sakhdari and Azad, but entry 46 is by Kuptsov. Sakhdari and Azad appear at entry 45.

1 of 1

Cites

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Related

Authors
Steinstraeter, M., Heinrich, T., & Lienkamp, M.
Affiliations
Technical University of Munich (DE)
Corresponding author
Steinstraeter, Matthias
ORCID
Venue
World Electric Vehicle Journal
Publisher
MDPI AG
Published
2021-08-10
Volume
12
Issue
3
Pages
115
ISSN
2032-6653 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.3390/wevj12030115
OpenAlex
W3189275896
Cited by
122
References
32
Citations by year
2026: 32 · 2025: 41 · 2024: 25 · 2023: 13 · 2022: 10 · 2021: 1
FWCI
3.93
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • World Electric Vehicle Journal (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
  • mediaTUM – the media and publications repository of the Technical University Munich (Technical University Munich) (submittedVersion)
  • mediaTUM – the media and publications repository of the Technical University Munich (Technical University Munich) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
Funders
Webasto Thermo&Comfort (-)
Topics
  • Physical Sciences › Engineering › Automotive Engineering › Electric and Hybrid Vehicle Technologies
  • Physical Sciences › Engineering › Automotive Engineering › Advanced Battery Technologies Research
  • Physical Sciences › Engineering › Electrical and Electronic Engineering › Electric Vehicles and Infrastructure
Keywords
battery electric vehicles, driving range, low temperature, cabin heating, regenerative braking, battery degradation, range loss, BMW i3, Tesla Model 3

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-28.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-28.

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Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

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