The DOI matches its Crossref record; 22 of the 22 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Study strategies of college students: Are self-testing and scheduling related to achievement?
Open accessAbstract
Previous studies, such as those by Kornell and Bjork (Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 14:219-224, 2007) and Karpicke, Butler, and Roediger (Memory, 17:471-479, 2009), have surveyed college students' use of various study strategies, including self-testing and rereading. These studies have documented that some students do use self-testing (but largely for monitoring memory) and rereading, but the researchers did not assess whether individual differences in strategy use were related to student achievement. Thus, we surveyed 324 undergraduates about their study habits as well as their college grade point average (GPA). Importantly, the survey included questions about self-testing, scheduling one's study, and a checklist of strategies commonly used by students or recommended by cognitive research. Use of self-testing and rereading were both positively associated with GPA. Scheduling of study time was also an important factor: Low performers were more likely to engage in late-night studying than were high performers; massing (vs. spacing) of study was associated with the use of fewer study strategies overall; and all students-but especially low performers-were driven by impending deadlines. Thus, self-testing, rereading, and scheduling of study play important roles in real-world student achievement.
Overview
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Despite the evidence for their effectiveness for long-term learning, the uptake of desirable difficulties is still too low in students in higher education (Hartwig & Dunlosky, 2012).”
From Worth the Effort: the Start and Stick to Desirable Difficulties (S2D2) Framework (2023) · cites this paper as Hartwig & Dunlosky, 2012
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“They did not, however, increase their self-testing (50%) to levels equivalent to other undergraduate surveys, found to be 71% in Hartwig and Dunlosky (2012), 72% in Morehead et al. (2016), and 62% in Williams et al. (2021).”
From Moving the Needle: Evidence of an Effective Study Strategy Intervention in a Community College Biology Course (2022) · cites this paper as Hartwig and Dunlosky (2012)
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“This amount of spacing matches the 64% of students who reported spacing their studying in Rodriguez et al. (2018). It is higher than that reported in Hartwig and Dunlosky at 47% (2012) and in Morehead et al. at 48% (2016).”
From Moving the Needle: Evidence of an Effective Study Strategy Intervention in a Community College Biology Course (2022) · cites this paper as Hartwig and Dunlosky (2012)
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Self-testing is a strategy used by many students, with Hartwig and Dunlosky reporting 71% of students (2012), and Morehead et al. reporting 72% of students (2016) saying they self-test, but this strategy is less often used by students historically excluded from STEM because of race or ethnicity (Rodriguez et al., 2018; Williams et al., 2021).”
From Moving the Needle: Evidence of an Effective Study Strategy Intervention in a Community College Biology Course (2022) · cites this paper as Hartwig and Dunlosky, 2012
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Drawing of any type is infrequently used, with Hartwig and Dunlosky finding only 15% of students using drawing (2012) and Morehead et al. (2016) finding only 24% of students using drawing as a main study strategy (2019).”
From Moving the Needle: Evidence of an Effective Study Strategy Intervention in a Community College Biology Course (2022) · cites this paper as Hartwig and Dunlosky, 2012
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Studies that surveyed students about their study timing found many students do use spacing (47% in Hartwig and Dunlosky, 2012; 48% in Morehead et al., 2016; 57% in Rodriguez et al., 2018), though clearly there is room for improvement.”
From Moving the Needle: Evidence of an Effective Study Strategy Intervention in a Community College Biology Course (2022) · cites this paper as Hartwig and Dunlosky, 2012
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Citations
Cites
(1991) · Cited by 3,259
Test-Enhanced Learning: Taking Memory Tests Improves Long-Term Retention
Roediger, H. L., & Karpicke, J. D. (2006) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01693.x · Cited by 2,867
Metacognition in Educational Theory and Practice
Hacker, D. J., Dunlosky, J. T., & Graesser, A. C. (1998) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781410602350 · Cited by 2,138
Distributed practice in verbal recall tasks: A review and quantitative synthesis.
Cepeda, N. J., Pashler, H., Vul, E., Wixted, J. T., & Rohrer, D. (2006) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.132.3.354 · Cited by 1,888 · cited 2×
“massed) practice is known to have a major impact on retention (Cepeda et al., 2006).”
BackgroundThe critical role of retrieval practice in long-term retention
Roediger, H. L., & Butler, A. C. (2011) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2010.09.003 · Cited by 1,796 · cited 5×
“Perhaps most impressively, the use of a self-testing strategy—which boosts performance when administered by an experimenter or teacher (Roediger & Butler, 2011)—is also related to student success when used spontaneously for academic learning.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialStudying as Self-Regulated Learning
(1998) · Metacognition in Educational Theory and Practice · doi:10.4324/9781410602350-19 · Cited by 1,589
Learning and memory : a comprehensive reference
Byrne, J. (2008) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/c2009-1-03733-2 · Cited by 779
Karpicke, J. D., Butler, A. C., & Roediger III, H. L. (2009) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658210802647009 · Cited by 745
The promise and perils of self-regulated study
Kornell, N., & Bjork, R. A. (2007) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/bf03194055 · Cited by 527
McDaniel, M. A., Agarwal, P. K., Huelser, B. J., McDermott, K. B., & Roediger, H. L. (2011) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0021782 · Cited by 360
Optimizing schedules of retrieval practice for durable and efficient learning: How much is enough?
Rawson, K. A., & Dunlosky, J. T. (2011) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/a0023956 · Cited by 329
Self-citationMetacognitive awareness of learning strategies in undergraduates
McCabe, J. (2011) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-010-0035-2 · Cited by 308
Optimal Time of Day and the Magnitude of Age Differences in Memory
May, C. P., Hasher, L., & Stoltzfus, E. R. (1993) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.1993.tb00573.x · Cited by 293
The Limited Benefits of Rereading Educational Texts.
Callender, A., & McDaniel, M. (2009) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2008.07.001 · Cited by 196
Effectiveness of highlighting for retention of text material.
Fowler, R., & Barker, A. S. (1974) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0036750 · Cited by 189
Dunlosky, J., Rawson, K. A., & Middleton, E. L. (2005) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1016/j.jml.2005.01.011 · Cited by 163
Self-citationRereading Effects Depend on Time of Test.
Rawson, K. A., & Kintsch, W. (2005) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.97.1.70 · Cited by 151
Measuring study time distributions: Implications for designing computer-based courses
Taraban, R., Maki, W. S., & Rynearson, K. (1999) · Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers · doi:10.3758/bf03207718 · Cited by 79
Roediger, H. L., III, McDaniel, M. A., & McDermott, A. K. (2006) · APS observer · Cited by 66
Reconstructive processing of memory content for high versus low test scores and grades
Bahrick, H. P., Hall, L. K., & Dunlosky, J. T. (1993) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.2350070102 · Cited by 44
Self-citationReading Skill, Textbook Marking, and Course Performance
Bell, K. E., & Limber, J. E. (2009) · Literacy Research and Instruction · doi:10.1080/19388070802695879 · Cited by 37
Cognition, Memory, and Education
McDaniel, M. A., & Callender, A. A. (2008) · Learning and Memory: A Comprehensive Reference · doi:10.1016/b978-012370509-9.00145-5 · Cited by 22
Research works printed but not linked: 1
- Dunlosky, J., & Metcalfe, J. (2009). Metacognition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Dunlosky, J., Rawson, K. A., Marsh, E. J., Nathan, M. J., & Willingham, D. T. (2013) · Psychological Science in the Public Interest · doi:10.1177/1529100612453266 · Cited by 3,138
Self-citationSelf-Regulated Learning: Beliefs, Techniques, and Illusions
Bjork, R. A., Dunlosky, J., & Kornell, N. (2013) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143823 · Cited by 1,468
“There is even a subset of students who do well in school who frequently cram for tests (e.g., Hartwig & Dunlosky 2012).”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationLearning Versus Performance: An Integrative Review
Soderstrom, N. C., & Bjork, R. A. (2015) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/1745691615569000 · Cited by 651
“Moreover, 64% of students reported not revisiting material once they felt like they had mastered it, while only 36% of students reported that they would restudy or test themselves later on that information (Kornell & Bjork, 2007; for similar results, see Hartwig & Dunlosky, 2012).”
Flipped Classrooms: a Review of Key Ideas and Recommendations for Practice
Delozier, S., & Rhodes, M. G. (2016) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-015-9356-9 · Cited by 598
“Such findings are legion (e.g., Benjamin et al. 1998; Hartwig and Dunlosky 2012; Koriat et al. 2004; Kornell and Bjork 2007, 2008, 2009; Kornell et al. 2011; McCabe 2011; Morehead et al. 2015; Rhodes and Castel 2008, 2009; Yan et al. 2014) and indicate that students’ perceptions of learning are not tantamount to objec…”
BackgroundSpaced Repetition Promotes Efficient and Effective Learning: Policy Implications for Instruction
Kang, S. H. K. (2016) · Policy Insights from the Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1177/2372732215624708 · Cited by 408
“Also, grade point average (GPA) is correlated with spaced study: Students with higher GPAs more often report spacing their study (Hartwig & Dunlosky, 2012).”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Hartwig, M. K., & Dunlosky, J.
- Affiliations
- Kent State University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Hartwig, Marissa K.
- Venue
- Psychonomic Bulletin & Review
- Published
- 2011-11-15
- Volume
- 19
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 126-134
- ISSN
- 1069-9384 (ISSN-L)
- 1531-5320
- OpenAlex
- W2110942371
- Cited by
- 477
- References
- 22
- Citations by year
- 2026: 23 · 2025: 42 · 2024: 47 · 2023: 41 · 2022: 63 · 2021: 42 · 2020: 56 · 2019: 39 · 2018: 30 · 2017: 25 · 2016: 23 · 2015: 18 · 2014: 14 · 2013: 8 · 2012: 5
- FWCI
- 4.49
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
- Locations
- Psychonomic Bulletin & Review (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Social Sciences › Education › Educational Outcomes and Influences
- Keywords
- study habits, self-testing, re-reading, study scheduling, university students, academic performance, grade point average
- MeSH terms
- Achievement, Female, Humans, Male, Surveys and Questionnaires, Students, Universities, Test Taking Skills
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
