Test-enhanced learning in a middle school science classroom: The effects of quiz frequency and placement.
Abstract
Typically, teachers use tests to evaluate students ’ knowledge acquisition. In a novel experimental study, we examined whether low-stakes testing (quizzing) can be used to foster students ’ learning of course content in 8th grade science classes. Students received multiple-choice quizzes (with feedback); in the quizzes, some target content that would be included on the class summative assessments was tested, and some of the target content was not tested. In Experiment 1, three quizzes on the content were spaced across the coverage of a unit. Quizzing produced significant learning benefits, with between 13% and 25 % gains in performance on summative unit examinations. In Experiments 2a and 2b, we manipulated the placement of the quizzing, with students being quizzed on some content prior to the lecture, quizzed on some immediately after the lecture, and quizzed on some as a review prior to the unit exam. Review quizzing produced the greatest increases in exam performance, and these increases were only slightly augmented when the items had appeared on previous quizzes. The benefits of quizzing (relative to not quizzing) persisted on cumulative semester and end-of-year exams. We suggest that the present effects reflect benefits accruing to retrieval practice, benefits that are well established in the basic literature.
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Core classroom content can be better remembered on unit exams after low-stakes multiple-choice quizzing with immediate correct-answer feedback.
“In other studies, we have also repeatedly demonstrated that core classroom content can be better remembered on unit exams after lowstakes multiple-choice quizzing with immediate correct-answer feedback (McDaniel et al. 2007(McDaniel et al. , 2011(McDaniel et al. , 2013;;Roediger et al. 2011a).”
From Practicing Retrieval Facilitates Learning (2021) · cites this paper as McDaniel et al. 2011
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InfluentialMcDermott, K. B., Agarwal, P. K., D'Antonio, L., Roediger, H. L., III, & McDaniel, M. A. (2013) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Applied · doi:10.1037/xap0000004 · Cited by 199 · see citing works
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InfluentialSelf-citationRetrieval practice & Bloom’s taxonomy: Do students need fact knowledge before higher order learning?
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“…condition, because even though the term testing effect is also used to refer to beneficial effects of testing as an additional activity (e.g., McDaniel et al. 2011; Smith and Karpicke 2014), any beneficial effects of testing as an additional activity could be due to increased time on task…”
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“…practice effect is well established for both simple and complex materials (i.e., single word lists and prose passages; for a review see Karpicke & Aue, 2015), and in laboratory as well as in classroom settings (Bangert-Drowns et al., 1991; Karpicke & Grimaldi, 2012; McDaniel et al., 2011).”
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“, quizzing) that avoid the detrimental effects of stress associated with testing (McDaniel et al., 2011; Wenzel & Reinhard, 2021; Yang et al., 2021).”
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“In classrooms, quiz exercises are well-established parts of learning during the same period (McDaniel et al. 2011; Roediger III et al. 2011).”
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“In the study reported by McDaniel et al. (2011) there were three experiments in which 8th grade students performed three consecutive multiple choice “quizzes” on science contents, followed by corrective feedback.”
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Self-citationThe Effect of Retrieval Practice in Primary School Vocabulary Learning
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Understanding the cognitive processes involved in writing to learn
Arnold, K. M., Umanath, S., Thio, K., Reilly, W. B., McDaniel, M. A., & Marsh, E. J. (2017) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Applied · doi:10.1037/xap0000119 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
Self-citationUngraded Pop Quizzes: Test-Enhanced Learning Without All the Anxiety
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“This is especially the case, given this combination of potentially contradictory results from laboratory-based studies that suggest, on one hand, quizzing is a beneficial method for introducing test-enhanced learning (e.g., McDaniel et al., 2011; Roediger et al., 2011).”
ResultThe influences of a two-tier test strategy on student learning: A lag sequential analysis approach
Yang, T., Chen, S. Y., & Hwang, G. (2014) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2014.11.021 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Carpenter, S. K., Endres, T., & Hui, L. (2020) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-020-09562-w · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Examining the Testing Effect in University Teaching: Retrievability and Question Format Matter
Greving, S., & Richter, T. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02412 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Hinze, S. R., & Rapp, D. N. (2014) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.3032 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Multiple-choice testing as a desirable difficulty in the classroom.
Bjork, E. L., Little, J. L., & Storm, B. C. (2014) · Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.jarmac.2014.03.002 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
A Comprehensive Review of Educational Technology on Objective Learning Outcomes in Academic Contexts
Yeung, K. L., Carpenter, S. K., & Corral, D. (2021) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-020-09592-4 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
“Indeed, there is evidence that postclass quizzes can be more effective than preclass quizzes (McDaniel et al. 2011), and that adding preclass quizzes does little to boost these benefits (Carpenter et al. 2018; Geller et al. 2017).”
BackgroundThe benefit of retrieval practice over elaborative restudy in primary school vocabulary learning
Goossens, N. A. M. C., Camp, G., Verkoeijen, P. P. J. L., Tabbers, H. K., & Zwaan, R. A. (2014) · Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.jarmac.2014.05.003 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Pan, S. C., & Carpenter, S. K. (2023) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-023-09814-5 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
“…situations, including elementary school students learning about space exploration (de Lima & Jaeger, 2020), middle school students learning science (McDaniel et al., 2011), undergraduate students learning psychology (Carpenter et al., 2018; Soderstrom & Bjork, 2023) and chemical engineering…”
BackgroundResultDoes pre-testing promote better retention than post-testing?
Latimier, A., Riegert, A., Peyre, H., Ly, S. T., Casati, R., & Ramus, F. (2019) · npj Science of Learning · doi:10.1038/s41539-019-0053-1 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
“These results are consistent not only with those of Frase(27,28) showing an advantage of post-test over pre-test location but also with previous studies that compared post-testing and combined pre- and post-testing and found little difference.(30) Similarly, a new study by Geller et al.”
ResultTablet-Based Math Assessment: What Can We Learn from Math Apps?.
Cayton-Hodges, G. A., Feng, G., & Pan, X. (2015) · Educational Technology & Society · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Neural signatures of test-potentiated learning in parietal cortex
Nelson, S. M., Arnold, K. M., Gilmore, A. W., & McDermott, K. B. (2013) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.0960-13.2013 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
“These benefits have been demonstrated not only in laboratory settings, but also in classrooms (Larsen et al., 2008; McDaniel et al., 2011).”
BackgroundSelf-citationEcological Validity of the Testing Effect: The Use of Daily Quizzes in Introductory Psychology
Batsell, W. R., Perry, J. L., Hanley, E., & Hostetter, A. B. (2017) · Teaching of Psychology · doi:10.1177/0098628316677492 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
“Pertaining to population validity, researchers have shown a significant testing effect in an eighth-grade science class (McDaniel et al., 2011) or a sixth-grade social studies class (Roediger et al., 2011), yet these results may not be replicable with college students and their advanced approaches…”
BackgroundResultDesirable Difficulty: Theory and application of intentionally challenging learning
Nelson, A., & Eliasz, K. L. (2022) · Medical Education · doi:10.1111/medu.14916 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Petrović, J., Pale, P., & Jeren, B. (2017) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-016-9571-0 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
“…the effects of formative assessments performed in authentic educational settings is therefore not surprising (Brame and Biel 2015; Carrillo-de-la-Peña et al. 2009; McDaniel et al. 2011; McDaniel et al. 2012), and studies that have been published on this topic do not always report unanimous results.”
BackgroundA Social Practice Theory of Learning and Becoming Across Contexts and Time
Penuel, W. R., Horne, K. V., DiGiacomo, D. K., & Kirshner, B. (2017) · Frontline Learning Research · doi:10.14786/flr.v4i1.205 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Makransky, G., Mayer, R. E., Nøremølle, A., Córdoba, A. L., Wandall, J., & Bonde, M. (2019) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-019-09690-3 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
“For instance, in a longitudinal study McDaniel et al. (2011) investigated whether low-stakes testing could be used to foster students’ learning of course content, and they found that the act of being quizzed helped students learn better.”
BackgroundThe Testing Effect for Learning Principles and Procedures from Texts
Dirkx, K., Liesbeth Kester, A., & Kirschner, P. A. (2014) · The Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1080/00220671.2013.823370 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
The effects of test-enhanced learning on long-term retention in AAN annual meeting courses
Larsen, D. P., Butler, A. C., Aung, W. Y., Corboy, J. R., Friedman, D. I., & Sperling, M. R. (2015) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/wnl.0000000000001264 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
“Average (n 5 35) 37 (15) 55 (19) 19 (18) 39 (15) 46 (15) 7 (17) 35 (13) 44 (17) 9 (17)”
InfluentialYeo, D. J. S., & Fazio, L. K. (2018) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/edu0000268 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Effects of embedded questions in recorded lectures
van der Meij, H., & Bӧckmann, L. (2020) · Journal of Computing in Higher Education · doi:10.1007/s12528-020-09263-x · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Social Cognition in the Internet Age: Same As It Ever Was?
Sparrow, B., & Chatman, L. (2013) · Psychological Inquiry · doi:10.1080/1047840x.2013.827079 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Barenberg, J., & Dutke, S. (2018) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658211.2018.1506481 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
“…indicating beneficial effects of retrieval practise in students (e.g., Carpenter, Pashler, & Cepeda, 2009; McDaniel, Agarwal, Huelser, McDermott, & Roediger, 2011), in learning from text (e.g., Kang, McDermott, & Roediger, 2007; Smith & Karpicke, 2014) and even when retrieval practise was…”
BackgroundOpen-Book Versus Closed-Book Tests in University Classes: A Field Experiment
Rummer, R., Schweppe, J., & Schwede, A. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00463 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Investigating the testing effect: Retrieval as a characteristic of effective study strategies
Bae, C. L. L., Therriault, D. J., & Redifer, J. L. (2018) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2017.12.008 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Lechuga, M. T., Tudela, J. M. O., & Gómez‐Ariza, C. J. (2015) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2015.08.002 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Guided retrieval practice of educational materials using automated scoring.
Grimaldi, P. J., & Karpicke, J. D. (2013) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0033208 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Anunpattana, P., Khalid, M. N. A., Iida, H., & Inchamnan, W. (2021) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e08637 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
“…test that can enhance learning performance and help students retain their motivation, and the quizzing benefits can be clarified by manipulating the quiz frequency and placement to show significant learning improvements and exam performance both before and after a lecture (McDaniel et al., 2011).”
BackgroundRetractedSelf-reported use of retrieval practice varies across age and domain
Tullis, J. G., & Maddox, G. B. (2020) · Metacognition and Learning · doi:10.1007/s11409-020-09223-x · Cited by 46 · see citing works
“Retrieval practice, broadly, requires learners to retrieve information from long-term memory rather than re-read or re-expose themselves to the information (e.g. McDaniel et al. 2011; Roediger III et al. 2011).”
BackgroundIs testing a more effective learning strategy than note-taking?
Rummer, R., Schweppe, J., Gerst, K., & Wagner, S. (2017) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Applied · doi:10.1037/xap0000134 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Serper, M., Barankay, I., Chadha, S., Justine Shults, A., Jones, L., Olthoff, K. M., & Reese, P. P. (2020) · Transplant International · doi:10.1111/tri.13570 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
“Although retrieval practice has shown to improve test performance in a classroom setting, applications of this paradigm to healthcare have not been widely investigated and warrant future study [29,30,36].”
Effects of spaced versus massed training in function learning.
McDaniel, M. A., Fadler, C. L., & Pashler, H. (2013) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/a0032184 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Self-citationBjork, E., Soderstrom, N. C., & Little, J. L. (2015) · American Journal of Psychology · doi:10.5406/amerjpsyc.128.2.0229 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Dunlosky, J. T., & Rawson, K. A. (2015) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2015.05.003 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Larsen, D. (2018) · Seminars in Neurology · doi:10.1055/s-0038-1666983 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Minimizing interference with early consolidation boosts 7-day retention in amnesic patients.
Alber, J., Sala, S. D., & Dewar, M. (2014) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037/neu0000091 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Morphew, J., da Silva, M. R., Herman, G. L., & West, M. (2019) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.3605 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Dobson, J. L. (2013) · AJP Advances in Physiology Education · doi:10.1152/advan.00174.2012 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Lameris, A. L. L., Hoenderop, J. G. J., Bindels, R. J. M., & Eijsvogels, T. M. H. (2015) · BMC Medical Education · doi:10.1186/s12909-015-0351-0 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
“According to recent studies in sixth and eight grade students, formative testing increases the percentage of correctly answered questions during summative tests by ±10% [23,24].”
BackgroundTest-enhanced learning in third-grade children
Jaeger, A., Eisenkraemer, R. E., & Stein, L. M. (2014) · Educational Psychology · doi:10.1080/01443410.2014.963030 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
“, 2009; Halamish & Bjork, 2011; Karpicke & Roediger, 2007; Roediger & Karpicke, 2006), and especially with studies recruiting children as participants (Carpenter et al., 2009; McDaniel et al., 2011; Roediger et al., 2011), we provide strong evidence that third-grade children can exhibit the testing effect in education…”
BackgroundResultInfluentialGordon, K. R. (2020) · Language Speech and Hearing Services in Schools · doi:10.1044/2020_lshss-19i-00001 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Testing enhances subsequent learning in older but not in younger elementary school children
Aslan, A., & Bäuml, K.-H. (2015) · University of Regensburg Publication Server (University of Regensburg) · doi:10.5283/epub.33113 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
A Systematic Review of the Testing Effect in Learning
Eisenkraemer, R. E., Jaeger, A., & Stein, L. M. (2013) · Paidéia (Ribeirão Preto) · doi:10.1590/1982-43272356201314 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
“McDaniel et al. (2011) investigated the testing effect in eightgrade students, involving multiple-choice tests.”
BackgroundResultCan formative quizzes predict or improve summative exam performance?*
Zhang, N., & Henderson, C. N. R. (2014) · Journal of Chiropractic Education · doi:10.7899/jce-14-12 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Kirchoff, B. K., Delaney, P. F., Horton, M., & Dellinger-Johnston, R. (2014) · CBE—Life Sciences Education · doi:10.1187/cbe.13-11-0224 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
“Active learning of this sort can take place either inside or outside the classroom and has been shown to aid memory and learning both in laboratory settings (Roediger and Karpicke, 2006; Delaney et al., 2010; Karpicke and Blunt, 2011) and in science classrooms (McDaniel et al., 2011).”
Cogliano, M., Kardash, C. M., & Bernacki, M. L. (2018) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2018.12.001 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
The limited effects of prequestions on learning from authentic lecture videos
Toftness, A. R., Carpenter, S. K., Lauber, S., & Mickes, L. (2018) · Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.jarmac.2018.06.003 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Thomas, R. C., Weywadt, C. R., Anderson, J. L., Martinez-Papponi, B., & McDaniel, M. A. (2018) · Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.jarmac.2018.03.007 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Self-citation
- Authors
- McDaniel, M. A., Agarwal, P. K., Huelser, B. J., McDermott, K. B., & Roediger, H. L.
- Venue
- Journal of Educational Psychology
- Published
- 2011-05
- Volume
- 103
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 399-414
- ISSN
- 0022-0663 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-2176
- OpenAlex
- W2155589898
- Semantic Scholar
- 780ee39bcd30d72dd4702eee9245f725922838d9
- Cited by
- 360
- References
- 39
- Citations by year
- 2026: 10 · 2025: 17 · 2024: 17 · 2023: 23 · 2022: 16 · 2021: 26 · 2020: 31 · 2019: 33 · 2018: 30 · 2017: 24 · 2016: 21 · 2015: 34 · 2014: 31 · 2013: 23 · 2012: 15
- FWCI
- 12.79
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Educational Psychology (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- US Department of Education (R305H060080-06)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Social Sciences › Education › Student Assessment and Feedback
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Keywords
- retrieval practice, low-stakes assessment, quizzing, 8th grade science, junior high school science
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