Cited by 329Fatty Acid Research and HealthBirth, Development, and HealthNutritional Studies and Diet

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DHA supplementation and pregnancy outcomes

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Carlson, Susan E, Colombo, John, Gajewski, Byron J, Gustafson, Kathleen M, Mundy, David, Yeast, John, Georgieff, Michael K, Markley, Lisa A, Kerling, Elizabeth H, Shaddy, D Jill·2013·The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition

DOI 10.3945/ajcn.112.050021PMC PMC3607655

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Abstract

Background Observational studies associate higher intakes of n-3 (omega-3) long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPUFAs) during pregnancy with higher gestation duration and birth size. The results of randomized supplementation trials using various n-3 LCPUFA sources and amounts are mixed.Objective We tested the hypothesis that 600 mg/d of the n-3 LCPUFA docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) can increase maternal and newborn DHA status, gestation duration, birth weight, and length. Safety was assessed.Design This phase III, double-blind, randomized controlled trial was conducted between January 2006 and October 2011. Women (n = 350) consumed capsules (placebo, DHA) from <20 wk of gestation to birth. Blood (enrollment, birth, and cord) was analyzed for red blood cell (RBC) phospholipid DHA. The statistical analysis was intent-to-treat.Results Most of the capsules were consumed (76% placebo; 78% DHA); the mean DHA intake for the treated group was 469 mg/d. In comparison with placebo, DHA supplementation resulted in higher maternal and cord RBC-phospholipid-DHA (2.6%; P < 0.001), longer gestation duration (2.9 d; P = 0.041), and greater birth weight (172 g; P = 0.004), length (0.7 cm; P = 0.022), and head circumference (0.5 cm; P = 0.012). In addition, the DHA group had fewer infants born at <34 wk of gestation (P = 0.025) and shorter hospital stays for infants born preterm (40.8 compared with 8.9 d; P = 0.026) than did the placebo group. No safety concerns were identified.Conclusions A supplement of 600 mg DHA/d in the last half of gestation resulted in overall greater gestation duration and infant size. A reduction in early preterm and very-low birth weight could be important clinical and public health outcomes of DHA supplementation. This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT00266825.

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Impact of omega-3 fatty acid DHA and EPA supplementation in pregnant or breast-feeding women on cognitive performance of children: systematic review and meta-analysis
Lehner, A., Staub, K., Aldakak, L., Eppenberger, P., Rühli, F. J., Martin, R. D., & Bender, N. (2020) · Nutrition Reviews · doi:10.1093/nutrit/nuaa060 · Cited by 52
The effect of n-3 LCPUFA supplementation on oxidative stress and inflammation in the placenta and maternal plasma during pregnancy
Leghi, G. E., & Mühlhäusler, B. S. (2016) · Prostaglandins Leukotrienes and Essential Fatty Acids · doi:10.1016/j.plefa.2016.08.010 · Cited by 51
Effects of Maternal Nutritional Supplements and Dietary Interventions on Placental Complications: An Umbrella Review, Meta-Analysis and Evidence Map
Kinshella, M. W., Omar, S., Scherbinsky, K., Vidler, M., Magee, L. A., von Dadelszen, P., Moore, S. E., Elango, R., & The PRECISE Conceptual Framework Working Group (2021) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu13020472 · Cited by 57
Assessment of DHA on reducing early preterm birth: the ADORE randomized controlled trial protocol
Carlson, S. E., Gajewski, B. J., Valentine, C. J., Rogers, L. K., Weiner, C. P., DeFranco, E., & Buhimschi, C. S. (2017) · BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth · doi:10.1186/s12884-017-1244-5 · Cited by 50
“026) in the group supplemented with 600 mg/d DHA compared to placebo [5].”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citation
Preterm Birth: A Narrative Review of the Current Evidence on Nutritional and Bioactive Solutions for Risk Reduction
Samuel, T., Sakwinska, O., Makinen, K., Burdge, G., Godfrey, K., & Silva-Zolezzi, I. (2019) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu11081811 · Cited by 47
“Also, the role of only DHA is supported by two large RCTs. Higher doses of DHA (doses≥600 mg DHA/day) may be needed to have a protective effect, although the optimal dosage is yet to be determined.”
BackgroundInfluential
Maternal fats and pregnancy complications: Implications for long-term health
Khaire, A. A., Wadhwani, N. S., Madiwale, S. D., & Joshi, S. (2020) · Prostaglandins Leukotrienes and Essential Fatty Acids · doi:10.1016/j.plefa.2020.102098 · Cited by 49
Critical and Sensitive Periods in Development and Nutrition
Colombo, J. A., Gustafson, K. M., & Carlson, S. E. (2019) · Annals of Nutrition and Metabolism · doi:10.1159/000508053 · Cited by 57
Self-citation
Inflammation and Oxidative Stress as Mediators of the Impacts of Environmental Exposures on Human Pregnancy: Evidence from Oxylipins
Welch, B. M., McNell, E. E., Edin, M. L., & Ferguson, K. K. (2022) · Pharmacology & Therapeutics · doi:10.1016/j.pharmthera.2022.108181 · Cited by 51
Developmental changes in polyunsaturated fetal plasma phospholipids and feto-maternal plasma phospholipid ratios and their association with bronchopulmonary dysplasia
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Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid (PUFA) Status in Pregnant Women: Associations with Sleep Quality, Inflammation, and Length of Gestation
Christian, L. M., Blair, L. M., Porter, K. M., Lower, M., Cole, R. M., & Belury, M. A. (2016) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0148752 · Cited by 46
“This effect is supported in a phase III, double-blind RCT of 350 women which demonstrated that supplementation with 600 mg/d of DHA in the last half of pregnancy resulted in longer gestation and greater infant size (birth weight, length, and head circumference)[11].”
Background
Modulation of Breast Cancer Risk Biomarkers by High-Dose Omega-3 Fatty Acids: Phase II Pilot Study in Postmenopausal Women
Fabian, C. J., Kimler, B. F., Phillips, T. A., Nydegger, J. L., Kreutzjans, A. L., Carlson, S. E., Hidaka, B. H., Metheny, T., Zalles, C. M., Mills, G. B., et al. (2015) · Cancer Prevention Research · doi:10.1158/1940-6207.capr-14-0336 · Cited by 44
“41 Chromatography Workstation (Agilent Technologies) was used for peak integration and analysis (32).”
MethodSelf-citation
Red ochre and shells: clues to human evolution
Duarte, C. M. (2014) · Trends in Ecology & Evolution · doi:10.1016/j.tree.2014.08.002 · Cited by 43
Louisiana residents’ self-reported lack of information following the Deepwater Horizon oil spill: Effects on seafood consumption and risk perception
Simon‐Friedt, B., Howard, J. L., Wilson, M. J., Gauthe, D., Bogen, D., Nguyen, D., Frahm, E., & Wickliffe, J. K. (2016) · Journal of Environmental Management · doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2016.05.030 · Cited by 43
“…dietary fatty acids through decreased consumption of seafood could lead to poor birth outcomes and neurodevelopment issues in children (Shirai et al., 2010; Lewis et al., 1992; Al-Saleh et al., 2014; Robillard and Christon, 1993; Meher et al., 2016; Grieger and Clifton, 2015; Carlson et al., 2013).”
Background
Breast milk DHA levels may increase after informing women: a community-based cohort study from South Dakota USA
Juber, B. A., Jackson, K. H., Johnson, K. B., Harris, W. S., & Baack, M. L. (2016) · International Breastfeeding Journal · doi:10.1186/s13006-016-0099-0 · Cited by 43
“For the pregnant woman, DHA status is directly associated with the length of gestation [19] and fetal growth [20] and is indirectly associated with anxiety [21] and postpartum depressive symptoms [5].”
Background
Impact of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid intake in pregnancy on maternal health and birth outcomes: systematic review and meta-analysis from randomized controlled trails
Abdelrahman, M. A., Osama, H., Saeed, H., Madney, Y. M., Harb, H. S., & Abdelrahim, M. E. A. (2022) · Archives of Gynecology and Obstetrics · doi:10.1007/s00404-022-06533-0 · Cited by 41
DHA supplementation and pregnancy complications
Jiang, Y., Chen, Y., Wei, L., Zhang, H., Zhang, J., Zhou, X., Zhu, S., Du, Y., Su, R., Fang, C., et al. (2023) · Journal of Translational Medicine · doi:10.1186/s12967-023-04239-8 · Cited by 44
Health Behavior Change in Pregnant Women: A Two-Phase Study
Davis, A. M., Wambach, K. A., Nelson, E. L., Odar, C. C., Lillis, T. A., McKinley, A., & Gallagher, M. (2014) · Telemedicine Journal and e-Health · doi:10.1089/tmj.2013.0374 · Cited by 40
Maternal intake of seafood and supplementary long chain n-3 poly-unsaturated fatty acids and preterm delivery
Brantsæter, A. L., Englund‐Ögge, L., Haugen, M. A., Birgisdóttir, B. E., Knutsen, H. K., Sengpiel, V., Myhre, R., Alexander, J., Nilsen, R. M., Jacobsson, B., et al. (2017) · BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth · doi:10.1186/s12884-017-1225-8 · Cited by 44
“8 g/d DHA reduced the prevalence of early preterm births in low risk pregnancies [22, 23].”
Background
Exploring the role of LC-PUFA metabolism in pregnancy complications
Godhamgaonkar, A. A., Wadhwani, N. S., & Joshi, S. (2020) · Prostaglandins Leukotrienes and Essential Fatty Acids · doi:10.1016/j.plefa.2020.102203 · Cited by 42
The Effect of Omega-3 Docosahexaenoic Acid Supplementation on Gestational Length: Randomized Trial of Supplementation Compared to Nutrition Education for Increasing n-3 Intake from Foods
Harris, M., Reece, M. S., McGregor, J., Wilson, J. W., Burke, S. M., Wheeler, M., Anderson, J. E., Auld, G., French, J. I., & Allen, K. G. D. (2015) · BioMed Research International · doi:10.1155/2015/123078 · Cited by 39
“of FO supplementation had greatest effects on women who eat little or no fish [7, 8] and tend to have no effect on gestational length in women with high baseline intakes of”
Background
Efficacy of docosahexaenoic acid-enriched formula to enhance maternal and fetal blood docosahexaenoic acid levels: Randomized double-blinded placebo-controlled trial of pregnant women with gestational diabetes mellitus
Min, Y., Djahanbakhch, O., Hutchinson, J., Eram, S., Bhullar, A. S., Namugere, I., & Ghebremeskel, K. (2015) · Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1016/j.clnu.2015.05.020 · Cited by 39
Fish oil supplementation improves pregnancy outcomes and size of the newborn: a meta-analysis of 21 randomized controlled trials
Chen, B., Ji, X., Zhang, L., Hou, Z., Li, C., & Tong, Y. (2015) · The Journal of Maternal-Fetal & Neonatal Medicine · doi:10.3109/14767058.2015.1072163 · Cited by 38
“(2013) [36] Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Unclear Unclear Mozurkewich et al.”
BackgroundInfluential
Higher omega-3 index and DHA status in pregnant women compared to lactating women – Results from a German nation-wide cross-sectional study
Gellert, S., Schuchardt, J. P., & Hahn, A. (2016) · Prostaglandins Leukotrienes and Essential Fatty Acids · doi:10.1016/j.plefa.2016.04.002 · Cited by 41
Long chain fatty acids and related pro-inflammatory, specialized pro-resolving lipid mediators and their intermediates in preterm human milk during the first month of lactation
Robinson, D. T., Palac, H., Baillif, V., Goethem, E. V., Dubourdeau, M., Horn, L. V., & Martin, C. R. (2017) · Prostaglandins Leukotrienes and Essential Fatty Acids · doi:10.1016/j.plefa.2017.05.003 · Cited by 38
Effect of Silibinin in Reducing Inflammatory Pathways in In Vitro and In Vivo Models of Infection-Induced Preterm Birth
Lim, R., Morwood, C. J., Barker, G., & Lappas, M. (2014) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0092505 · Cited by 37
“Some clinical trials in progress include the tocolytic nifedipine [18,19], nifedipine based on cervical length [20], and dietary supplementation of the omega-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), which resulted in longer gestation and larger infant size [21].”
Background
Supplementation of Omega 3 during Pregnancy and the Risk of Preterm Birth: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
Serra, R., Peñailillo, R. S., Monteiro, L. J., Mönckeberg, M., Peña, M., Moyano, L., Brunner, C., Vega, G., Choolani, M. A., & Illanes, S. E. (2021) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu13051704 · Cited by 35
The Influence of Omega-3 Long-Chain Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid, Docosahexaenoic Acid, on Child Behavioral Functioning: A Review of Randomized Controlled Trials of DHA Supplementation in Pregnancy, the Neonatal Period and Infancy
Gould, J. F., Roberts, R., & Makrides, M. (2021) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu13020415 · Cited by 35
“Carlson, 2013 [82]; Colombo, 2019 [83] USA; antenatal clinics N enrolled: 350 Trt:178, ctrl:172 Singleton, healthy, normal BMI Duration: mean 14.”
Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) supplementation in pregnancy differentially modulates arachidonic acid and DHA status across FADS genotypes in pregnancy
Scholtz, S. A., Kerling, E. H., Shaddy, D. J., Li, S., Thodosoff, J. M., Colombo, J. A., & Carlson, S. E. (2014) · Prostaglandins Leukotrienes and Essential Fatty Acids · doi:10.1016/j.plefa.2014.10.008 · Cited by 35
“The weekly and overall capsule intake of each subject was calculated at the end of the treatment phase [16].”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citation
Maternal circadian rhythm disruption affects neonatal inflammation via metabolic reprograming of myeloid cells
Cui, Z., Xu, H., Wu, F., Chen, J., Zhu, L., Shen, Z., Yi, X., Yang, J., Jia, C., Zhang, L., et al. (2024) · Nature Metabolism · doi:10.1038/s42255-024-01021-y · Cited by 35
“Placental DHA levels were positively correlated with baby weight; lower levels of placental DHA were observed in women with babies of low body weight 37,38 .”
Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid Composition of Maternal Diet and Erythrocyte Phospholipid Status in Chilean Pregnant Women
Bascuñán, K. A., Valenzuela, R., Chamorro, R., Valencia, A., Barrera, C. R., Puigrredon, C., Sandoval, J. I., & Valenzuela, A. (2014) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu6114918 · Cited by 34
“Several studies have shown that pregnancy is a critical period for n-3 PUFA intake [12].”
Effects of maternal omega-3 fatty acids supplementation during pregnancy/lactation on body composition of the offspring: A systematic review and meta-analysis
Li, G.-L., Chen, H.-J., Zhang, W., Tong, Q., & Yan, Y. (2017) · Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1016/j.clnu.2017.08.002 · Cited by 34
Modulation of Breast Cancer Risk Biomarkers by High-Dose Omega-3 Fatty Acids: Phase II Pilot Study in Premenopausal Women
Fabian, C. J., Kimler, B. F., Phillips, T. A., Box, J. A., Kreutzjans, A. L., Carlson, S. E., Hidaka, B. H., Metheny, T., Zalles, C. M., Mills, G. B., et al. (2015) · Cancer Prevention Research · doi:10.1158/1940-6207.capr-14-0335 · Cited by 34
“Lipids from plasma, erythrocytes, and breast tissue were isolated according to a modified Folch method [34], and fractionated by thin-layer chromatography.”
MethodSelf-citation
Effect of Omega-3 Supplementation in Pregnant Women with Obesity on Newborn Body Composition, Growth and Length of Gestation: A Randomized Controlled Pilot Study
Monthé‐Drèze, C., Sen, S., Mouzon, S. H., & Catalano, P. M. (2021) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu13020578 · Cited by 41
“These findings are in line with recent RCTs and systematic reviews showing that n-3 PUFA supplementation is associated with increased fetal growth and lower incidence of BW < 2500 g in women of all weights [13,21,23].”
Result
Gestational age and maternal status of DHA and other polyunsaturated fatty acids in pregnancy: A systematic review
Wilson, N. A., Mantzioris, E., Middleton, P., & Mühlhäusler, B. S. (2019) · Prostaglandins Leukotrienes and Essential Fatty Acids · doi:10.1016/j.plefa.2019.04.006 · Cited by 32
Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids reduce preterm labor by inhibiting trophoblast cathepsin S and inflammasome activation
Chen, C.-Y., Chen, C.-Y., Liu, C.-C., & Chen, C. (2018) · Clinical Science · doi:10.1042/cs20180796 · Cited by 30
Prevention of Bortezomib-Related Peripheral Neuropathy With Docosahexaenoic Acid and α-Lipoic Acid in Patients With Multiple Myeloma: Preliminary Data
Maschio, M. C. E., Zarabla, A., Maialetti, A., Marchesi, F., Giannarelli, D., Gumenyuk, S., Pisani, F., Renzi, D., Galiè, E., & Mengarelli, A. (2018) · Integrative Cancer Therapies · doi:10.1177/1534735418803758 · Cited by 31
Dietary intake of DHA during pregnancy: a significant gap between the actual intake and current nutritional recommendations
Wierzejska, R. E., Jarosz, M., Wojda, B. K., & Siuba-Strzelińska, M. (2018) · Roczniki Państwowego Zakładu Higieny · doi:10.32394/rpzh.2018.0044 · Cited by 30
Docosahexaenoic Acid and Preterm Birth
Makrides, M., & Best, K. P. (2016) · Annals of Nutrition and Metabolism · doi:10.1159/000448263 · Cited by 29
Epigenetic Effects of n-3 LCPUFAs: A Role in Pediatric Metabolic Syndrome
Amatruda, M., Ippolito, G., Vizzuso, S., Vizzari, G., Banderali, G., & Verduci, E. (2019) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms20092118 · Cited by 29
“Fish oil could be responsible for longer pregnancy due to the effect of EPA and ARA-derived prostaglandins [57].”
Background
Effect of docosahexaenoic acid‐enriched fish oil supplementation in pregnant women with Type 2 diabetes on membrane fatty acids and fetal body composition—double‐blinded randomized placebo‐controlled trial
Min, Y., Djahanbakhch, O., Hutchinson, J., Bhullar, A. S., Raveendran, M., Hallot, A., Eram, S., Namugere, I., Nateghian, S., & Ghebremeskel, K. (2014) · Diabetic Medicine · doi:10.1111/dme.12524 · Cited by 30
Predicting the effect of maternal docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) supplementation to reduce early preterm birth in Australia and the United States using results of within country randomized controlled trials
Yelland, L. N., Gajewski, B. J., Colombo, J. A., Gibson, R. A., Makrides, M., & Carlson, S. E. (2016) · Prostaglandins Leukotrienes and Essential Fatty Acids · doi:10.1016/j.plefa.2016.08.007 · Cited by 28
“The trial methodology and pregnancy outcomes have been reported [5].”
InfluentialSelf-citation
Stunting is a recognized problem: Evidence for the potential benefits of ω-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids
Rahmawaty, S., & Meyer, B. J. (2019) · Nutrition · doi:10.1016/j.nut.2019.110564 · Cited by 36
Prenatal docosahexaenoic acid effect on maternal-infant DHA-equilibrium and fetal neurodevelopment: a randomized clinical trial
Gustafson, K. M., Christifano, D. N., Hoyer, D., Schmidt, A., Carlson, S. E., Colombo, J. A., Mathis, N. B., Sands, S. A., Chollet‐Hinton, L., Brown, A. R., et al. (2021) · Pediatric Research · doi:10.1038/s41390-021-01742-w · Cited by 28
Self-citation
Omega-3 and Omega-6 Fatty Acids in Blood and Breast Tissue of High-Risk Women and Association with Atypical Cytomorphology
Hidaka, B. H., Li, S., Harvey, K. E., Carlson, S. E., Sullivan, D. K., Kimler, B. F., Zalles, C. M., & Fabian, C. J. (2015) · Cancer Prevention Research · doi:10.1158/1940-6207.capr-14-0351 · Cited by 29
“After transmethylation with boron trifluoride-methanol, fatty acid methyl esters were isolated and analyzed by gas chromatography using a Varian 3900 (Agilent Technologies) with helium as the carrier gas and reported as weight percent of total fatty acids as previously described (38).”
Self-citation
Maternal-placental axis and its impact on fetal outcomes, metabolism, and development
Lima, B. D. S., Sanches, A. P. V., Ferreira, M. S., de Oliveira, J. L., Cleal, J. K., & Ignácio-Souza, L. M. (2023) · Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Molecular Basis of Disease · doi:10.1016/j.bbadis.2023.166855 · Cited by 35
Docosahexaenoic Acid Supplementation Early in Pregnancy May Prevent Deep Placentation Disorders
Jorge Carvajal, C. (2014) · BioMed Research International · doi:10.1155/2014/526895 · Cited by 27
“Taking DHA with meals can often decrease these side effects [81, 83, 106].”
Background
Oxidized fish oil in rat pregnancy causes high newborn mortality and increases maternal insulin resistance
Albert, B. B., Vickers, M. H., Gray, C. L., Reynolds, C. M., Segovia, S. A., Derraik, J. G. B., Lewandowski, P. A., Garg, M. L., Cameron‐Smith, D., Hofman, P. L., et al. (2016) · American Journal of Physiology-Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology · doi:10.1152/ajpregu.00005.2016 · Cited by 25
Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid intake norms and preterm birth rate: a cross-sectional analysis of 184 countries
Ciesielski, T. H., Bartlett, J., & Williams, S. M. (2019) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2018-027249 · Cited by 26

Authors: Carlson, S. E., Colombo, J., Gajewski, B. J., Gustafson, K. M., Mundy, D., Yeast, J., Georgieff, M. K., Markley, L. A., Kerling, E. H., & Shaddy, D. J.
Affiliations: University of Kansas Medical Center (US)
University of Kansas (US)
University of Missouri–Kansas City (US)
ORCID: Carlson, Susan E
Colombo, John
Gajewski, Byron J
Gustafson, Kathleen M
Mundy, David
Georgieff, Michael K
Kerling, Elizabeth H
Shaddy, D Jill
Venue: The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Published: 2013-04
Volume: 97
Issue: 4
Pages: 808-815
ISSN: 0002-9165 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.3945/ajcn.112.050021
PMC: PMC3607655
OpenAlex: W2136748312
Cited by: 329
References: 21
Citations by year: 2026: 15 · 2025: 18 · 2024: 20 · 2023: 17 · 2022: 36 · 2021: 31 · 2020: 24 · 2019: 22 · 2018: 21 · 2017: 24 · 2016: 35 · 2015: 34 · 2014: 25 · 2013: 6
FWCI: 30.93
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: bronze
doi.org
Licence: www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
www.elsevier.com/legal/tdmrep-license (tdm)
www.elsevier.com/open-access/userlicense/1.0/ (vor, 3612 d)
Locations: American Journal of Clinical Nutrition (publishedVersion)
Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion)
PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders: National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders (P30DC005803)
Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (P30HD02528, R01HD047315, P30HD002528)
Topics: Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Fatty Acid Research and Health
Health Sciences › Medicine › Pediatrics, Perinatology and Child Health › Birth, Development, and Health
Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Nutritional Studies and Diet
Keywords: docosahexaenoic acid, DHA supplementation, pregnancy, omega-3 fatty acids, gestation length, birth weight, birth length, preterm birth, very low birth weight, red blood cell phospholipids, supplement safety
MeSH terms: Adult, Birth Weight, Body Height, Dietary Fats, Docosahexaenoic Acids, Double-Blind Method, Erythrocytes, Female, Gestational Age, Head, Humans, Infant, Newborn, Infant, Premature, Length of Stay, Phospholipids, Pregnancy, Pregnancy Outcome, Umbilical Cord, Dietary Supplements, Fetal Development, Premature Birth, Young Adult

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DHA supplementation and pregnancy outcomes

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