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The Content Analysis Guidebook
Abstract
List of Boxes List of Tables and Figures Foreword Acknowledgments 1. Defining Content Analysis Is Content Analysis Easy? Is It Something That Anyone Can Do? A Six-Part Definition of Content Analysis 2. Milestones in the History of Content Analysis The Growing Popularity of Content Analysis Milestones of Content Analysis Research 3. Beyond Description: An Integrative Model of Content Analysis The Language of the Scientific Method How Content Analysis Is Done: Flowchart for the Typical Process of Content-Analysis Research Approaches to Content Analysis The Integrative Model of Content Analysis Evaluation With the Integrative Model of Content Analysis 4. Message Units and Sampling Units Defining the Population Archives Medium Management Sampling Sample Size 5. Variables and Predictions Identifying Critical Variables Hypotheses, Predictions, and Research Questions 6. Measurement Techniques Defining Measurement Validity, Reliability, Accuracy, and Precision Types of Validity Assessment Operationalization Computer Coding Selection of a Computer Text Content Analysis Program Human Coding Index Construction in Content Analysis 7. Reliability Intercoder Reliability Standards and Practices Issues in the Assessment of Reliability Pilot and Final Reliabilities Intercoder Reliability Coefficients: Issues and Comparisons Calculating Intercoder Reliability Coefficients Treatment of Variables That Do Not Achieve an Acceptable Level of Reliability The Use of Multiple Coders Advanced and Specialty Issues in Reliatbility Coefficient Selection 8. Results and Reporting Data Handling and Transformations Hypothesis Tesing Selecting the Appropriate Statistical Tests Frequencies Co-Occurences and In-Context Occurrences Time Lines Bivariate Relationships Multivariate Relationships 9. Contexts Psychometric Applications of Content Analysis Open-Ended Written and Pictorial Responses Linguistics and Semantic Networks Stylometrics and Computer Literary Analysis Interaction Analysis Other Interpersonal Behaviors Violence in the Media Gender Roles Minority Portrayals Advertising News Political Communication Web Analyses Other Applied Contexts Commercial and Other Client-Based Applications of Content Analysis Future Directions Resource 1: Message Archives - P.D. Skalski General Collections Film, Television and Radio Archives Literary and General Corpora Other Archives Resource 2: Using NEXIS for Text Acquisition for Content Analysis Resource 3: Computer Content Analysis Software - P.D. Skalski Part I. Quantitative Computer Text Analysis Programs Part II. VBPro How-To Guide and Executional Flowchart Resource 4: An Introduction to PRAM--A Program for Reliability Assessment With Multiple Coders Resource 5: The Content Analysis Guidebook Online Content Analysis Resources Bibliographies Message Archives and Corpora Reliability Human Coding Sample Materials Computer Content Analysis References Author Index Subject Index About the Authors
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“Content analysis [77] of transcripts from the thinking aloud sessions, field notes, and feedback interviews was coded using predetermined codes related to usability issues (navigation, content, layout, learnability, errors, and satisfaction) after each iterative cycle.”
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Items 1,001–1,030 of 1,030
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Kuo, F.-Y., & Yu, C.-P. (2009) · Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication · doi:10.1111/j.1083-6101.2009.01472.x · Cited by 60
“Comparison of these two researchers’ coding results also reveals that the reproducibility between the two coders was 88.73 percent, indicating an acceptable level of reliability (Neuendorf, 2002).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialRossi, R., Nairn, A., Smith, J., & Inskip, C. (2021) · Journal of Public Policy & Marketing · doi:10.1177/0743915621999674 · Cited by 50
“In line with standard content analysis method (Neuendorf 2017), the next step was to create a codebook.”
MethodAutomated Annotation with Generative AI Requires Validation
Pangakis, N., Wolken, S., & Fasching, N. (2023) · arXiv · doi:10.48550/arxiv.2306.00176 · Cited by 47
“…and expensive, human annotators, usually crowd-sourced workers 1 or undergraduate assistants, often suffer from a limited attention span, fatigue, and changing perceptions of the underlying conceptual categories throughout the labeling procedures (Grimmer and Stewart, 2013; Neuendorf, 2016).”
Gender construction through textbooks: The case of an Ethiopian primary school English textbook
Gebregeorgis, M. Y. (2016) · Africa Education Review · doi:10.1080/18146627.2016.1224579 · Cited by 46
“Though content analysis has been used for gender-related studies (Neuendorf 2002) because ‘the historical trajectory of content analysis as a research methodology has cooccurred with the historical trajectory of scholarly interest in gender equality’ (Rudy”
MethodQuayle, E., & Newman, E. (2016) · Crime Science · doi:10.1186/s40163-016-0050-0 · Cited by 38
“0, which would be seen as acceptable in most situations (Neuendorf 2002).”
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“In the final stage, two researchers (SS & GA) tallied simple frequencies for major themes (Neuendorf, 2002, Chap.”
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Leocádio, D., Guedes, L., Oliveira, J., Reis, J., & Melão, N. (2024) · Procedia Computer Science · doi:10.1016/j.procs.2024.01.120 · Cited by 37
Dudău, D. P., & Sava, F. A. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.570568 · Cited by 36
A Content Analysis of Library Vendor Privacy Policies: Do They Meet Our Standards?
Magi, T. J. (2010) · College & Research Libraries · doi:10.5860/0710254 · Cited by 36
How Do Programming Students Use Generative AI?
Rahe, C., & Maalej, W. (2025) · Proceedings of the ACM on Software Engineering · doi:10.1145/3715762 · Cited by 45
“The labels were initially created through a deductive approach [Maalej and Robillard 2013; Neuendorf 2017], and then consolidated after reviewing the actual chat logs.”
Kuijpers, W., Groen, W. G., Oldenburg, H. S., Wouters, M. W., Aaronson, N. K., & van Harten, W. H. (2015) · JMIR Research Protocols · doi:10.2196/resprot.3796 · Cited by 32
“The interviews were analyzed by a simple content analysis [16] of the notes taken by the researcher and, if notes were not sufficient, listening back to the audiotapes.”
Analyzing Students’ Technology Use Motivations: An Interpretive Structural Modeling Approach
Guo, Z., Li, Y., & Stevens, K. J. (2012) · Communications of the Association for Information Systems · doi:10.17705/1cais.03014 · Cited by 32
Ramírez, A. S., Estrada, E., & Ruiz, A. (2017) · The Journal of Primary Prevention · doi:10.1007/s10935-017-0466-7 · Cited by 31
“We used Stata SE 13 (Statacorp, 2014) to compute Cohen’s kappa as an assessment of interrater reliability (Neuendorf, 2002).”
MethodMechanizing People and Pedagogy: Establishing Social Presence in the Online Classroom
Cunningham, J. M. (2015) · Online Learning · doi:10.24059/olj.v19i3.476 · Cited by 30
“To analyze the responses obtained from the open-ended questions, content analysis (Berelson, 1952; Hsieh & Shannon, 2005; Krippendorff, 2004; Neuendorf, 2002), informed by grounded theory (Glaser & Strauss, 1967), was applied.”
MethodMüller-Engelmann, M., Wünsch, S., Volk, M., & Steil, R. (2017) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01407 · Cited by 30
“This interview corresponded to approximately 10% of the data material, as proposed by Neuendorf (2002).”
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“Qualitative data from the feedback forms were analysed and described using content analysis techniques (Neuendorf, 2002).”
MethodBlech, C., Gaschler, R., & Bilalić, M. (2020) · Thinking & Reasoning · doi:10.1080/13546783.2019.1685001 · Cited by 26
VUI Influencers: How the Media Portrays Voice User Interfaces for Older Adults
Sin, J., Munteanu, C., Ramanand, N., & Tan, Y. R. (2021) · CUI 2021 - 3rd Conference on Conversational User Interfaces · doi:10.1145/3469595.3469603 · Cited by 25
“By the mid-1980s, content analysis had become a common method taught in research courses in journalism [36].”
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Drahota, A., Meza, R. D., Bustos, T. E., Sridhar, A., Martinez, J. I., Brikho, B., Stahmer, A. C., & Aarons, G. A. (2021) · Administration and Policy in Mental Health and Mental Health Services Research · doi:10.1007/s10488-020-01084-5 · Cited by 24
Khojasteh, L., Hosseini, S. A., & Nasiri, E. (2021) · Research and Practice in Technology Enhanced Learning · doi:10.1186/s41039-021-00165-9 · Cited by 21
“Since the students’ pretests and posttests were analyzed and marked by two human raters (university lecturers), the inter-rater reliability was calculated (Neuendorf, 2002).”
Brand integration, disclosure, and ethics in child-targeted YouTube videos: A content analysis
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“Therefore, with the lens of the integrative model of content analysis (Neuendorf, 2017), the current study suggests the potential associations between kid-friendly YouTube videos (i.e., messages) and children (i.e., receivers).”
User Preference and Categories for Error Responses in Conversational User Interfaces
Yuan, S., Brüggemeier, B., Hillmann, S., & Michael, T. (2020) · Proceedings of the 2nd Conference on Conversational User Interfaces · doi:10.1145/3405755.3406126 · Cited by 16
Babatunde, F. O., MacDermid, J., Grewal, R., Macedo, L., & Szekeres, M. (2020) · JMIR Human Factors · doi:10.2196/17088 · Cited by 12
“Content analysis [77] of transcripts from the thinking aloud sessions, field notes, and feedback interviews was coded using predetermined codes related to usability issues (navigation, content, layout, learnability, errors, and satisfaction) after each iterative cycle.”
Ng, L. C., Ahishakiye, N., Miller, D. E., & Meyerowitz, B. E. (2015) · Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy · doi:10.1037/tra0000024 · Cited by 13
Vukušić Rukavina, T., Machala Poplašen, L., Majer, M., Relić, D., Viskić, J., & Marelić, M. (2022) · JMIR Medical Education · doi:10.2196/35585 · Cited by 12
“The SMePROF rubric has face and content validity established through a lengthy development process, containing categories and subcategories identified through a search of the literature and review by interdisciplinary experts followed by further revisions to establish more precise criteria for coding [77].”
Virtual Museums as Meaning-Modeling Systems in Digital Heritage
Guan, H., Chen, P., & Kwon, C. L. (2025) · Heritage · doi:10.3390/heritage8110484 · Cited by 10
Klan, A., Whitley, J., Krause, A., McBrearty, N., Rogers, M. A., & Smith, J. D. (2024) · Educational and Child Psychology · doi:10.53841/bpsecp.2024.41.1.73 · Cited by 8
Chigwada, J., & Ngulube, P. (2026) · Frontiers in Research Metrics and Analytics · doi:10.3389/frma.2026.1740510 · Cited by 5
Bayrak, T. (2026) · İnsan ve Toplum Bilimleri Araştırmaları Dergisi · doi:10.15869/itobiad.1769534
Metadata
- Authors
- Neuendorf, K. A.
- Corresponding author
- Neuendorf, Kimberly A.
- Venue
- Sage eBooks
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications, Inc
- Published
- 2017
- OpenAlex
- W1568955415
- Cited by
- 9,286
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 135 · 2025: 271 · 2024: 474 · 2023: 569 · 2022: 571 · 2021: 609 · 2020: 603 · 2019: 628 · 2018: 474 · 2017: 488
- FWCI
- 317.83
- Type
- book
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Sage eBooks (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › General Social Sciences › Computational and Text Analysis Methods
- Social Sciences › Education › Qualitative Research Methods and Applications
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Statistics, Probability and Uncertainty › Reliability and Agreement in Measurement
- Keywords
- content analysis, sampling units, measurement validity, measurement reliability, intercoder reliability, coding, corpora, interaction analysis, media violence, gender roles in media, advertising, political communication, website analysis
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