Virtual Museums as Meaning-Modeling Systems in Digital Heritage

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The analysis identifies seven roles across the curatorial and audience sides of virtual museum meaning generation.

“Our analysis identifies seven such roles across the curatorial and audience sides (building on earlier discussions of subject positions in the virtual museum):”

May combine two claims.

The overall agreement was high: kappa = 0.82 for modeling level and kappa = 0.79 for model form.

“The overall agreement was high: kappa = 0.82 for modeling level (indicating almost perfect agreement) and kappa = 0.79 for model form (substantial agreement).”

May combine two claims.

Triangulation of AR, CR, OPS yields the three patterns reported, with the B-D proximity clarifying the Network-Symbolic type (RQ3).

“triangulation of AR, CR, OPS yields the three patterns reported, with the B-D proximity clarifying the Network-Symbolic type (RQ3)”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The AR, CR, and OPS metrics validly measure abstraction, connectivity, and object primacy in virtual museum experiences.

May combine two claims.

Case D's metrics were AR ~0.55, CR ~0.60, and OPS ~0.10 or lower.

“The metrics for Case D indicate a high Abstraction Ratio (AR ~0.55), a relatively high Connectivity Ratio (CR ~0.60), and a very low Object Primacy Score (OPS ~0.10 or lower).”

May combine two claims.

Case D's interface introduces connective and cohesive forms, such as a guided tour mode (cohesive script) and an interactive map (connective hub).

“Virtual Angkor's interface allowing jumping between viewpoints or activating informational overlays, introduces connective and cohesive forms.For instance, a guided tour mode that moves through locations is a cohesive script; an interactive map to choose locations is a connective hub.”

May combine two claims.

In Case B, there was a high number of Tertiary modeling instances; the timeline system and thematic linking are conceptual constructs far removed from any single artifact's physical reality.

“In our analysis, Case B contained a high number of Tertiary modeling instances, the entire timeline system and thematic linking are conceptual constructs far removed from any single artifact's physical reality.”

May combine two claims.

Case B also includes Secondary elements (textual descriptions and curatorial commentary) and Primary representations (the artifacts themselves).

“It also includes Secondary elements, such as textual descriptions and curatorial commentary providing context to each artifact.The artifacts themselves are Primary representations.”

May combine two claims.

In Case D, Tertiary modeling is also prominent: filling in gaps to create a living city and the narrative framing for educational use are highly symbolic.

“However, Tertiary modeling is also prominent, the entire act of filling in gaps to create a living city, and the narrative framing for educational use, are highly symbolic.”

May combine two claims.

Connectivity aggregates differently across interface families and co-varies with abstraction but not monotonically with object primacy (RQ2).

“connectivity aggregates differently across interface families and co-varies with abstraction but not monotonically with object primacy (RQ2)”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The AR, CR, and OPS metrics validly measure abstraction, connectivity, and object primacy in virtual museum experiences.

May combine two claims.

Case C's metrics were AR ≈ 0.70, CR ≈ 0.40, and OPS ≈ 0.10.

“The metrics for Case C show a very high Abstraction Ratio (AR ≈ 0.70), indicating an intensely concept-driven experience.”

• Also stated in: § 4.1.3. Case C: Digital Beijing Central Axis (China) · hedged

  “The Connectivity Ratio is more moderate (CR ≈ 0.40) because, while the project is unified, it may be relatively guided/linear (one follows the axis top to bottom) rather than freely networked.”

• Also stated in: § 4.1.3. Case C: Digital Beijing Central Axis (China) · plain

  “The Object Primacy Score is low (OPS ≈ 0.10), reflecting that the focus is not on autonomous objects but on a conceptual narrative and virtual reconstruction.”

May combine two claims.

In Case E, many instances were coded as Primary: each artifact on display is a high-resolution image or 3D point in the panorama, direct visual representations of real objects.

“We coded many instances here as Primary: each artifact on display is present as a high-resolution image or 3D point in the panorama, these are direct visual representations of real objects (iconic modeling).”

May combine two claims.

In Case E, singularized forms are dominant, composite forms appear as one moves between exhibit groupings, the virtual tour platform provides a cohesive form, and connective elements are minimal.

“In terms of forms: singularized forms are dominant, each individual artifact or display case is its own unit to examine; composite forms appear as one moves from one exhibit grouping to another; the virtual tour platform provides a cohesive form, it's a consistent interface, arrows to move, a floorplan for navigation; connective elements are minimal aside from the ability to jump via the floorplan”

May combine two claims.

Case C had relatively few strictly primary elements, though detailed 3D models of buildings can be seen as primary iconic representations.

“There were relatively few strictly primary elements, since the project is not about individual artifacts but about a spatial concept though detailed 3D models of buildings can be seen as primary iconic representations of those buildings.”

May combine two claims.

Case E has hardly any Tertiary content; the tour does not introduce new narratives beyond the physical museum, nor does it gamify or metaphorically link content.

“Hardly any Tertiary content is added, the tour does not introduce new narratives beyond what the physical museum had, nor does it gamify or metaphorically link content; it strives for realism and authenticity.”

May combine two claims.

In Case B, each artifact entry is a singularized form; thematic or temporal groupings are connective forms; the interface framework, timeline, filters, and map are a cohesive form.

“For forms, each artifact entry (image + text) is a singularized form; the thematic or temporal groupings of multiple artifacts act as connective forms (explicit links across items); the interface framework, timeline, filters, map is a cohesive form providing structure.”

May combine two claims.

In the resulting dendrogram, the first merge occurs between B and D (Euclidean distance ≈ 0.206), after which C joins that cluster at a height of ≈0.328; A merges next, and E remains the most distant case.

“In the resulting dendrogram (Figure 1), the first merge occurs between B and D (Euclidean distance ≈ 0.206), after which C joins that cluster at a height of ≈0.328;A merges next, and E remains the most distant case.”

• Also stated in: § 3.3. Quantitative Metrics · hedged

  “The dendrogram indicates the closest empirical proximity between B and D, followed by the addition of C at a higher distance.”

May combine two claims.

In Case A, scanned artifacts were singularized forms, the whole hut environment was a composite form, and the VR application acted as a cohesive form.

“In terms of forms, the scanned artifacts were singularized forms, each presented individually, while the whole hut environment was treated as a composite form combining artifacts with setting.The VR application itself acted as a cohesive form, a structured program guiding the experience.”

May combine two claims.

Case E's metrics were AR ≈ 0.05, CR ≈ 0.20, and OPS ≈ 0.60.

“The quantitative profile of Case E underscores its Object-Preserving nature: Abstraction Ratio is extremely low (AR ≈ 0.05, essentially negligible symbolic layer beyond the straight documentation), Connectivity Ratio is also low (CR ≈ 0.20, since the experience is mostly linear or spatially contiguous rather than richly hyperlinked), and Object Primacy Score is very high (OPS ≈ 0.60, indicating”

May combine two claims.

Three of the five cases had AR ≥ 0.50, meaning at least half of what they present is at the highest abstraction level.

“Three of our five cases had AR ≥ 0.50, meaning at least half of what they present is at the highest abstraction level.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The AR, CR, and OPS metrics validly measure abstraction, connectivity, and object primacy in virtual museum experiences.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The British Museum VR's Bronze Age roundhouse, combining multiple authentic 3D object scans within a reconstructed dwelling, exemplifies iconic text.

“The British Museum VR's Bronze Age roundhouse, combining multiple authentic 3D object scans within a reconstructed dwelling, exemplifies iconic text.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The British Museum VR's combination of curatorial commentary with multiple Bronze Age objects creates secondary composite modeling.

“The British Museum VR's combination of curatorial commentary with multiple Bronze Age objects creates secondary composite modeling.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

When the Museum of the World allows visual comparison between artifacts from different cultures through side-by-side display, it employs metaform structures.

“When the Museum of the World allows visual comparison between artifacts from different cultures through side-by-side display, it employs metaform structures.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Virtual Angkor's consistent approach to explaining Khmer architectural principles across different temple sites demonstrates secondary cohesive modeling.

“Virtual Angkor's consistent approach to explaining Khmer architectural principles across different temple sites demonstrates secondary cohesive modeling.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The Beijing Central Axis's consistent presentation of ideal urban order throughout the experience exemplifies tertiary cohesive modeling.

“The Beijing Central Axis's consistent presentation of ideal urban order throughout the experience exemplifies tertiary cohesive modeling.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Virtual Angkor's reconstruction of daily life scenarios combining multiple speculative elements represents tertiary composite modeling.

“Virtual Angkor's reconstruction of daily life scenarios combining multiple speculative elements represents tertiary composite modeling.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In Virtual Angkor, individual explanatory panels describing specific architectural features represent secondary singularized modeling.

“In Virtual Angkor, individual explanatory panels describing specific architectural features represent secondary singularized modeling.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In the DRC Museum virtual tour, each high-resolution image of an individual artifact viewed through the panoramic interface constitutes an iconic sign.

“For example, in the DRC Museum virtual tour, each high-resolution image of an individual artifact viewed through the panoramic interface constitutes an iconic sign.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The Museum of the World's temporal-geographic matrix that allows users to explore abstract connections between human societies represents meta-symbolic structuring.

“The Museum of the World's temporal-geographic matrix that allows users to explore abstract connections between human societies represents meta-symbolic structuring.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Curators model content at primary, secondary, and tertiary levels, using forms that range from singular exhibits to extensive interactive networks.

“We saw how curators (or designers) model content at primary, secondary, and tertiary levels, using forms that range from singular exhibits to extensive interactive networks.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

In the Beijing Central Axis presentation, individual symbolic representations of cosmic order function as tertiary singularized models.

“In the Beijing Central Axis presentation, individual symbolic representations of cosmic order function as tertiary singularized models.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The 360-degree panoramic system used throughout the DRC Museum tour represents an iconic code, providing a cohesive framework for experiencing the physical museum space.

“The 360-degree panoramic system used throughout the DRC Museum tour represents an iconic code, providing a cohesive framework for experiencing the physical museum space.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

The virtual museum medium can suggest and guide but meaning only materializes when a user internalizes the experience through their own modeling processes.

“The virtual museum medium can suggest and guide but meaning only materializes when a user internalizes the experience through their own modeling processes.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

The activities of curators, designers, and technologists in constructing virtual museum systems do not primarily serve communicative or dialogical purposes but reflect a form of hegemony aimed at asserting specific agendas.

“Such activities do not primarily serve communicative or dialogical purposes but instead reflect a form of hegemony aimed at asserting specific agendas.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

The process of modeling relies on the agency of the modeler, the specificity of the technology used, and the knowledge of the intended audience.

“The process relies on the agency of the modeler (curator or system designer), the specificity of the technology used, and the knowledge of the intended audience.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

MST categorizes artificial forms specific to human activity into four general types: singularized forms, composite forms, cohesive forms, and connective forms.

“Crucially, MST categorizes the artificial forms specific to human activity into four general types: singularized forms, composite forms, cohesive forms, and connective forms (see Table A1) [28,41].”

• cites [28] Sebeok, T.A., and Danesi, M. (2000). The Forms of Meaning, De Gruyter Mouton. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [41] Danesi, M. (2014). The concept of model in Thomas, A. Sebeok’s semiotics. New Semiotics. Between Tradition and Innovation, IASS Publications & NBU Publishing House.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Virtual museums do not simply copy reality; they model it, reflecting both the external world of artifacts and the internal world of curators' interpretive frameworks through digital technology, thereby constructing new interpretative dimensions.

“Similarly, virtual museums do not simply copy reality; they model it, reflecting both the external world of artifacts and the internal world of curators' interpretive frameworks through digital technology, thereby constructing new interpretative dimensions.”

May combine two claims.

The museum itself is a vast semiotic system, and virtual museums are no exception.

“First, the museum itself is a vast semiotic system, and virtual museums are no exception.”

• cites [28] Sebeok, T.A., and Danesi, M. (2000). The Forms of Meaning, De Gruyter Mouton. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

When simulations take precedence over their referents, the simulation can itself become the perceived reality for the audience.

“When simulations take precedence over their referents, the simulation can itself become the perceived reality for the audience.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Agents such as curators, designers, and technologists construct virtual museum systems using technology to discipline and reconfigure the meaning of objects.

“Furthermore, beyond the interplay of technology and audience, there exist agents (curators, designers, technologists) who construct these systems using technology to discipline and reconfigure the meaning of objects.”

May combine two claims.

As materiality gives way to informational representation, objects are increasingly reduced to providers of data, substituting information for physical substance.

“As materiality gives way to informational representation, objects are increasingly reduced to providers of data [9][10][11][12], underscoring the substitution of information for physical substance.”

• cites [9][10][11][12]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The virtual museum represents a digital technology-based service that remains under curatorial control.

“Instead, it represents a digital technologybased service that remains under curatorial control [26], with information technology significantly expanding the curator's capabilities [27].”

• cites [26] Tsichritzis, D., and Gibbs, S.J. (1991). Virtual Museums and Virtual Realities. International Cultural Heritage Informatics Meeting, Sheraton Station Square.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Virtual museums introduce more dynamic interactions between subjects and objects than traditional museums.

“Compared to traditional museums, virtual museums introduce more dynamic interactions between subjects (viewers) and objects (displayed artifacts).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

The virtual museum is not just an empty channel; it is an authored, content-rich environment, an object that is continuously interpreting and representing other objects.

“The virtual museum is not just an empty channel; it is an authored, content-rich environment, an object that is continuously interpreting and representing other objects.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Audience feedback might influence curators' future designs.

“Conversely, audience feedback might influence curators' future designs.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

No model, however advanced, can exhaust the reality it models.

“No model, however advanced, can exhaust the reality it models.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The subject can never fully apprehend the external in its entirety; there is always an unknowable aspect, a remainder.

May combine two claims.

The virtual museum can be seen as the result of curatorial modeling activities and simultaneously as the input for audience modeling activities.

“The virtual museum can be seen as the result of curatorial modeling activities and simultaneously as the input for audience modeling activities [77].”

• cites [77] Gahrn-Andersen, R., Festila, M.S., and Secchi, D. (2024). Systemic Cognition: Sketching a Functional Nexus of Intersecting Ontologies. Multiple Systems, Springer. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Meaning generation within virtual museums relies heavily on the semiosis of both curators and audiences.

“It is undeniable that meaning generation within virtual museums relies heavily on the semiosis of both curators and audiences.”

May combine two claims.

Digital representations are products of representational activities and have a life of their own once released to the audience.

“These representations are products of representational activities and have a life of their own once released to the audience.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

Instrumental reason leads to the unchecked expansion of control over both nature and culture.

“This reflects a broader power dynamic: instrumental reason leads to the unchecked expansion of control over both nature and culture [33].”

• cites [33] Horkheimer, M. (2014). Critique of Instrumental Reason, Verso.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

The object cannot be wholly reduced to subjective thought without loss.

“This inherent insufficiency of the concept means the object cannot be wholly reduced to subjective thought without loss.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Meaning lies not in the content itself but in how that content is understood by someone.

“According to modeling theory, meaning lies not in the content itself but in how that content is understood by someone.”

• cites [48] de Souza, C.S. (2005). The Semiotic Engineering of Human-Computer Interaction, The MIT Press. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

When the intrinsic qualities of the object are disregarded, the object risks being reduced to a mere instrument, subject to domination by the subject's will.

“Adorno warns that when the intrinsic qualities of the object are disregarded, the object risks being reduced to a mere instrument, subject to domination by the subject's will [79].”

• cites [79] Andrew, A., and Eike, G. (1978). Subject and Object. The Essential Frankfurt School Reader, Urizen Books.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The three quantitative metrics (AR, CR, OPS) provide a useful overview that can be correlated with qualitative observations.

“While these ratios simplify complex content, they provide a useful overview that can be correlated with qualitative observations.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Adorno emphasizes a dialectical approach that gives precedence to the object's specificity.

“Adorno thus emphasizes a dialectical approach that gives precedence to the object's specificity.”

• cites [29] Adorno, T.W. (1973). Negative Dialectics, Seabury Press.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

The virtual museum is inherently insufficient as a substitute for reality, but this insufficiency is not a failure of technology per se; it stems from the fundamental limitations of human cognition and representation.

“From this perspective, the virtual museum is inherently insufficient as a substitute for reality, but this insufficiency is not a failure of technology per se; it stems from the fundamental limitations of human cognition and representation.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The subject can never fully apprehend the external in its entirety; there is always an unknowable aspect, a remainder.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Two researchers independently coded a 10% random sample of model instances from each case (approximately 30 out of ~300 instances) to ensure reliability.

“To ensure reliability of the coding, two researchers independently coded a 10% sample of the model instances from each case (selected randomly), approximately 30 out of a total ~300 instances across all cases.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Adorno argues against reducing all phenomena to standardized mediation, emphasizing instead the specificity of objects.

“Adorno argues against reducing all phenomena to standardized mediation, emphasizing instead the specificity of objects [29].”

• cites [29] Adorno, T.W. (1973). Negative Dialectics, Seabury Press.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Virtual museums, as mediators of mediators, must prioritize the first mediator (the artifact or primary content) to achieve effective mediation.

“Virtual museums, as mediators of mediators, must therefore also prioritize the first mediator (the artifact or primary content) to achieve effective mediation.”

May combine two claims.

The virtual museum is itself an actor in the space, embodying choices and constraints.

“The virtual museum appears to provide a space for free interaction with subjects, but it is itself an actor in that space, embodying choices and constraints.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Adorno's non-identity refers to the idea that the concept or the subject's categorization can never fully capture the richness of the object; there is always a remainder that escapes identification.

“For Adorno, non-identity refers to the idea that the concept or the subject's categorization can never fully capture the richness of the object; there is always a remainder that escapes identification [29].”

• cites [29] Adorno, T.W. (1973). Negative Dialectics, Seabury Press.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

While concepts (virtual models) facilitate understanding, such understanding is rooted in the conceptual framework itself rather than the full reality of the object.

“While concepts (virtual models) facilitate understanding, such understanding is rooted in the conceptual framework itself rather than the full reality of the object.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Such frameworks harbor an implicit doubt about what lies beyond the subject's conceptual grasp.

“They harbor an implicit doubt about what lies beyond the subject's conceptual grasp.”

May combine two claims.

The virtual museum is both a space for subject interaction and a manifestation of object agency.

“In this dynamic, the virtual museum is both a space for subject interaction and, in a sense, a manifestation of object agency [85,86].”

• cites [85] Sparacino, 2000, Media in performance: Interactive spaces for dance, theater, circus, and museum exhibits, IBM Syst. J. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [86] 2025, Nexuses of performativity: Systemic generalities, infrastructures and practical ontologies, Thesis Elev. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

The moment of meaning occurs when the subject's concept and the object's particularity confront each other.

“The moment of meaning occurs when the subject's concept and the object's particularity confront each other.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.

The purposive sample of five virtual experiences spans Western, East Asian, and Global South contexts, ensuring that insights are not limited to a single cultural paradigm.

“This purposive sample spans Western, East Asian, and Global South contexts, ensuring that insights are not limited to a single cultural paradigm.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

The virtual exhibit as an object enters consciousness not in raw form but through modeled representation, yet it retains a non-identical element, aspects not fully determined by the subject's concept.

“In other words, the virtual exhibit as an object enters consciousness not in raw form but through modeled representation, yet it retains a non-identical element, aspects not fully determined by the subject's concept.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Technological mediation risks reifying concepts into an impression of reality.

“Technological mediation risks reifying concepts into an impression of reality.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Cohen's kappa was calculated for the level codes and form codes in line with recommended approaches.

“In line with recommended approaches [89], we calculated Cohen's kappa for the level codes and form codes.”

• cites [89] Lombard, 2002, Content Analysis in Mass Communication: Assessment and Reporting of Intercoder Reliability, Hum. Commun. Res. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

In an Adornian reading of virtual museums, the object's precedence lies in its entry into the subject's cognitive field through a process of reflection.

“In an Adornian reading of virtual museums, the object's precedence lies in its entry into the subject's cognitive field through a process of reflection.”

May combine two claims.

Users can distinguish the museum as medium from the content and still value the museum experience itself, meaning they recognize the layers of mediation.

“Audience studies suggest that users can distinguish the museum as medium from the content and still value the museum experience itself [87], meaning they recognize the layers of mediation.”

• cites [87] Kwak, 2022, Preference Factors of the Korean MZ Generation vis-à-vis the Online Programs of Museums Abroad, J. Digit. Converg.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The meaning generated in virtual museums stems from an interplay: it originates in the curator's modeling of content and is completed in the audience's re-modeling of that content.

“The meaning generated in virtual museums thus stems from an interplay: it originates in the curator's modeling of content and is completed in the audience's re-modeling of that content.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Using a standard intercoder reliability assessment on a sample is a common practice in content analysis to validate the scheme.

“Using a standard intercoder reliability assessment on this sample is a common practice in content analysis to validate the scheme [88].”

• cites [88] Neuendorf, K.A. (2017). The Content Analysis Guidebook, SAGE Publications. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Instrumental reason can manifest in virtual heritage as the drive to make content maximally engaging and controlled, possibly at the cost of authenticity and critical engagement.

“Instrumental reason can manifest in virtual heritage as the drive to make content maximally engaging and controlled, possibly at the cost of authenticity and critical engagement.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

An ideal dialectical museum might maintain a dynamic equilibrium: enough primary content to stay grounded in objects, enough secondary context to situate those objects, and enough tertiary concept to inspire broader connections, but not letting any one level dominate absolutely.

“an ideal dialectical museum might maintain a dynamic equilibrium: enough P to stay grounded in objects (Adorno's object), enough S to situate those objects (contextual knowledge), and enough T to inspire broader connections (conceptual insight) but not letting any one level dominate absolutely.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

The quality of meaning in a virtual museum is a function of its modeling balance.

“A theoretical proposition emerging from this study is that the quality of meaning in a virtual museum is a function of its modeling balance.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Adorno's non-identity gives the philosophical stance that the digital model is not identical to the original, and there is always something that escapes.

“Adorno's non-identity gives us a philosophical stance, the digital model is not identical to the original, there is always something that escapes.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

The clustering procedure privileges geometric proximity in the AR, CR, OPS space; it does not by itself adjudicate curatorial intent or evidential warrants.

“Note that this procedure privileges geometric proximity in the AR, CR, OPS space; it does not by itself adjudicate curatorial intent or evidential warrants.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Every exhibit, interface, or narrative is a sign or model representing some aspect of culture or knowledge.

“Every exhibit, interface, or narrative is a sign or model representing some aspect of culture or knowledge.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

We read the dendrogram as an empirical prompt, highlighting how metric proximity may diverge from curatorial, concept-dominant affinity rather than a definitive typology.

“We read this dendrogram as an empirical prompt, highlighting how metric proximity may diverge from curatorial, concept-dominant affinity rather than a definitive typology.”

May combine two claims.

The presence of real artifacts is still important in Network-Symbolic museums, but they are embedded in a rich matrix of links and conceptual overlays.

“The presence of real artifacts is still important, but they are embedded in a rich matrix of links and conceptual overlays.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The metrics allow us to see patterns, such as whether high abstraction correlates with lower object primacy, or whether strong connectivity coexists with certain levels of abstraction.

“They allow us to see patterns, such as whether high abstraction correlates with lower object primacy, or whether strong connectivity coexists with certain levels of abstraction.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Network-Symbolic museums are characterized by high connectivity and considerable symbolic abstraction, while still incorporating a mix of object representation.

“Network-Symbolic Museums: These are characterized by high connectivity and considerable symbolic abstraction, while still incorporating a mix of object representation.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Even an educational VR can become formulaic if it leaves no room for user interpretation or objects' specificity.

“It's not just Hollywood films or pop music that can have a formula, even an educational VR can become formulaic if it leaves no room for user interpretation or objects' specificity.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

An ideal dialectical museum would blend singular, composite, cohesive, and connective forms to enable both focus on particulars and understanding of wholes.

“Similarly, among forms, it would blend singular, composite, cohesive, connective forms to enable both focus on particulars and understanding of wholes.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Identifying a high proportion of tertiary modeling in a given virtual museum flags that the experience is concept-heavy and possibly less rooted in direct reality.

“For example, identifying a high proportion of tertiary modeling in a given virtual museum immediately flags that the experience is concept-heavy and possibly less rooted in direct reality.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

This Network-Symbolic type aligns with an interactive, exploratory paradigm.

“This type aligns with an interactive, exploratory paradigm.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Virtual museums that present a seamless, closed narrative (concept-dominant) illuminate what Adorno warned about the culture industry in a new light.

“Conversely, virtual museums that present a seamless, closed narrative (conceptdominant) illuminate what Adorno warned about the culture industry in a new light.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

A dialectical virtual museum embraces the idea that no single narrative about an object is final; instead, it provides a platform for many partial narratives to intersect.

“A dialectical virtual museum embraces the idea that no single narrative about an object is final; instead, it provides a platform for many partial narratives to intersect, an idea supported by earlier semiotic scholars like Hodge and D'Souza, who showed that museum meanings are a result of complex interactions of signs [94].”

• cites [94] Hodge, 1979, The museum as a Communicator: A semiotic analysis of the Western Australian Museum Aboriginal Gallery, Perth, Mus. Int. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

Authenticity, through Adorno's lens, is relational: it is about whether the representation allows the object's otherness to be sensed or whether it fully assimilates it to concept.

“Adorno's lens shifts authenticity discussion to relational, authenticity is about whether the representation allows the object's otherness (its context, its full being) to be sensed or whether it fully assimilates it to concept.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

Virtual museums that maximize interactivity and user choice (like network-symbolic ones) might embody a more dialectical museology, aligning with progressive ideals of visitor agency and multi-vocal interpretation.

“Virtual museums that maximize interactivity and user choice (like the networksymbolic ones) might embody a more dialectical museology, aligning with progressive ideals of visitor agency and multi-vocal interpretation.”

• cites [93] Hein, G.E. (2002). Learning in the Museum, Taylor & Francis. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The risk in Network-Symbolic museums is that the network of references itself might become reified; users might hop from object to object, skimming meanings, possibly treating the whole network as an infotainment web.

“However, the risk is that the network of references itself might become reified; users might hop from object to object, skimming meanings, possibly treating the whole network as an infotainment web.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

A highly stylized VR that just entertains might be seen as less authentic in this sense, whereas a thoughtfully contextualized 3D model with caveats might be more authentic.

“In practical terms, a highly stylized VR that just entertains might be seen as less authentic in this sense, whereas a thoughtfully contextualized 3D model with caveats might be more authentic.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

In Network-Symbolic systems, knowledge is constructed through a network of relationships; meaning emerges from how elements are connected across time/space/themes rather than from the elements alone.

“In these systems, knowledge is constructed through a network of relationships; the meaning emerges from how elements are connected across time/space/themes rather than from the elements alone.”

May combine two claims.

Cases B clearly falls in the Network-Symbolic type, and Case A shows some affinity albeit with lower abstraction.

“Cases B (Museum of the World) clearly falls here, and Case A (BM VR) shows some affinity albeit with lower abstraction.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Such designs, if done thoughtfully, can approximate Adorno's vision of not fully circumscribing the object with one concept but rather approaching it from multiple angles.

“Our analysis suggests that such designs, if done thoughtfully, can approximate Adorno's vision of not fully circumscribing the object with one concept but rather approaching it from multiple angles.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Some interpretive features in D (e.g., macro-historical narration) resemble C's concept-dominant stance, which explains prior discussions pairing C and D; our classification follows the metric geometry (B-D proximity) while keeping that interpretive kinship explicit.

“Note that some interpretive features in D (e.g., macro-historical narration) resemble C's concept-dominant stance, which explains prior discussions pairing C and D; our classification follows the metric geometry (B-D proximity) while keeping that interpretive kinship explicit in the case discussions.”

May combine two claims.

Case D's strong connective tissue and distributed linking place it empirically with the Network-Symbolic group, despite narrative orchestration introducing concept-dominant risks.

“While the narrative orchestration introduces concept-dominant risks, Case D's strong connective tissue and distributed linking place it empirically with the Network-Symbolic group.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

Understanding the virtual museum requires both a structural lens (semiotic modeling) and a critical lens (philosophy of non-identity and instrumental reason).

“As we have shown, understanding it requires both a structural lens (semiotic modeling) and a critical lens (philosophy of non-identity and instrumental reason).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

Instrumental reason in culture often manifests as using culture as a means, for profit, for propaganda, or at least for simplified consumption.

“Instrumental reason in culture often manifests as using culture as a means, for profit, for propaganda, or at least for simplified consumption.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Cases span Western institutions (British Museum), East Asian contexts (Beijing Central Axis), and Global South perspectives (DRC Museum, Virtual Angkor), enabling cross-cultural comparison of meaning-making strategies.

“Cases span Western institutions (British Museum), East Asian contexts (Beijing Central Axis), and Global South perspectives (DRC Museum, Virtual Angkor), enabling cross-cultural comparison of meaning-making strategies.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

In MST terms, multi-vocal content multiplies the modeling processes, preventing any one from claiming absolute truth, an enactment of non-identity.

“In MST terms, that multiplies the modeling processes (different interpreters, different models), preventing any one from claiming absolute truth, an enactment of non-identity.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Following satisfactory agreement (kappa = 0.82 for levels, 0.79 for forms), one researcher completed all coding with periodic reliability checks to prevent drift.

“Following satisfactory agreement (kappa = 0.82 for levels, 0.79 for forms), one researcher completed all coding with periodic reliability checks to prevent drift.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The framework's matrix structure ensures comprehensive coverage while maintaining analytical precision.

“The framework's matrix structure ensures comprehensive coverage while maintaining analytical precision.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Tertiary modeling operates at the highest level of abstraction, creating symbolic and conceptual frameworks that organize and reinterpret lower-level content.

“Tertiary modeling operates at the highest level of abstraction, creating symbolic and conceptual frameworks that organize and reinterpret lower-level content.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The dendrogram motivates interpretation in the main text and is not used to determine the number of clusters.

“The dendrogram motivates interpretation in the main text and is not used to determine the number of clusters.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

All three ratios take values in [0,1]; we did not standardize or transform them prior to clustering, preserving the geometric meaning of Ward (Euclidean) distances.

“All three ratios take values in [0,1]; we did not standardize or transform them prior to clustering, preserving the geometric meaning of Ward (Euclidean) distances.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The five virtual museum cases analyzed in this study were selected through purposive sampling to maximize variation across key dimensions.

“The five virtual museum cases analyzed in this study were selected through purposive sampling to maximize variation across key dimensions.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The connectivity ratio lumps cohesive and connective contributions, which is a simplification.

“Our CR lumps those, which is a simplification.”

May combine two claims.

Inclusion of multi-vocal content shows that no single concept exhausts the object; instead, the object sits at the intersection of many interpretations.

“That shows that no single concept (the curator's or the community's) exhausts the object; instead, the object sits at the intersection of many interpretations.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Borderline cases were addressed through coder discussion.

“We addressed borderline cases through coder discussion, but other researchers might code a particular element differently.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Each cell of the matrix represents a unique combination of representational level and organizational form, providing a nuanced framework for understanding how virtual museums construct and convey meaning.

“Each cell represents a unique combination of representational level and organizational form, providing a nuanced framework for understanding how virtual museums construct and convey meaning.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

For actual coding, researchers conducted systematic walkthroughs of each virtual museum, documenting all identifiable content instances; screen recordings enabled repeated viewing of interactive elements.

“For actual coding, researchers conducted systematic walkthroughs of each virtual museum, documenting all identifiable content instances.Screen recordings enabled repeated viewing of interactive elements.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

If designed with reflexivity, the virtual museum can make users aware of its own mediation, encouraging a critical stance that aligns with the goals of education and cultural reflection.

“At the same time, if designed with reflexivity, the virtual museum can make users aware of its own mediation, encouraging a critical stance that aligns with the goals of education and cultural reflection.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

MST posits that human meaning-making occurs through the interaction of modeling levels (primary, secondary, and tertiary) with modeling forms (singularized, composite, cohesive, and connective).

“MST posits that human meaning-making occurs through the interaction of modeling levels (primary, secondary, and tertiary) with modeling forms (singularized, composite, cohesive, and connective).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Temporal distribution across the 2015-2025 study window captures evolution in virtual museum design, though we acknowledge potential temporal confounds in typological patterns.

“Temporal distribution across the 2015-2025 study window captures evolution in virtual museum design, though we acknowledge potential temporal confounds in typological patterns.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

With five cases, clustering served primarily to visualize distances among cases rather than to fix a definitive taxonomy.

“With five cases, clustering served primarily to visualize distances among cases rather than to fix a definitive taxonomy.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

Distinguishing levels or forms is not always black-and-white.

“Distinguishing levels or forms is not always black-and-white.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Initial coder training utilized practice materials to establish shared understanding of the twelve-category framework; two researchers independently coded practice content, discussing disagreements to refine category boundaries and application guidelines.

“Initial coder training utilized practice materials to establish shared understanding of the twelve-category framework.Two researchers independently coded practice content, discussing disagreements to refine category boundaries and application guidelines.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The framework operates as a matrix combining three hierarchical modeling levels with four distinct model forms, yielding twelve analytical categories for systematic content classification.

“The framework operates as a matrix combining three hierarchical modeling levels with four distinct model forms, yielding twelve analytical categories for systematic content classification.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

A virtual exhibit may bring artifacts together that would never meet in a physical museum, creating new contexts and interpretations, an act of cultural production in its own right.

“For instance, a virtual exhibit may bring artifacts together that would never meet in a physical museum, creating new contexts and interpretations, an act of cultural production in its own right.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The twelve-cell matrix created by combining three modeling levels with four modeling forms captures the full spectrum of semiotic possibilities in virtual museums.

“This creates a twelve-cell matrix (Table A1) that captures the full spectrum of semiotic possibilities in virtual museums.”

May combine two claims.

Virtual museums are not passive windows into reality; they actively shape the trajectory of meaning.

“Virtual museums are not passive windows into reality; they actively shape the trajectory of meaning.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

The most fruitful approaches appear to be those that avoid the extremes of rigid narrative or total fragmentation, instead fostering an environment where multiple connections can be made without losing sight of the unique value of each artifact.

“The most fruitful approaches appear to be those that avoid the extremes of rigid narrative or total fragmentation, instead fostering an environment where multiple connections can be made without losing sight of the unique value of each artifact.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The coding process, while reliable, inevitably involved some subjective judgment.

“Secondly, the coding process, while reliable, inevitably involved some subjective judgment.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Intercoder reliability assessment used stratified random sampling of 10% of instances from each case, with minimum thresholds ensuring adequate representation from smaller cases.

“Intercoder reliability assessment used stratified random sampling of 10% of instances from each case, with minimum thresholds ensuring adequate representation from smaller cases.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Equal weighting of all instances was maintained despite recognized limitations; alternative weighting schemes would introduce additional subjective judgments and complicate cross-case comparisons.

“Equal weighting of all instances was maintained despite recognized limitations.Alternative weighting schemes would introduce additional subjective judgments and complicate cross-case comparisons.”

• Also stated in: § Additional information · hedged

  “We report unweighted proportions to retain interpretability and comparability across heterogeneous interfaces; alternative weighting schemes risk embedding curator-or platform-specific priors and are left for future behavior-grounded work.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Technological diversity constituted another selection criterion; cases represent major virtual museum technologies including web-based interactives, VR headset experiences, panoramic tours, and immersive 3D simulations, enabling analysis of how different technological affordances shape meaning construction.

“Technological diversity constituted another selection criterion.Cases represent major virtual museum technologies including web-based interactives, VR headset experiences, panoramic tours, and immersive 3D simulations.This variety enables analysis of how different technological affordances shape meaning construction.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

The virtual museum stands as a testament to human creativity in meaning-making, a tertiary modeling system that encapsulates and extends the forms of meaning humanity has always built.

“The virtual museum stands as a testament to human creativity in meaning-making, a tertiary modeling system that encapsulates and extends the forms of meaning that humanity has always built, from cave paintings to cabinets of curiosity to grand national museums [5].”

• cites [5] Virtual Museums, F., Becker, I., Böhmer, O., Gröne, R., Günter, B., Heinzelmann, R., Kircher-Kannemann, A., Mahmoudi, Y., Römhild, J., and Simon, H. (2024). Virtual Museums—A Plea, Deutscher Kunstverlag (DKV).Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Institutional scale ranged from well-funded international collaborations to preservation-focused efforts with limited resources.

“Institutional scale ranged from well-funded international collaborations to preservationfocused efforts with limited resources.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Quantitative metrics were calculated as simple proportions to maintain interpretability and comparability.

“Quantitative metrics were calculated as simple proportions to maintain interpretability and comparability.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Geographic and cultural representation guided selection to ensure findings transcended single cultural contexts.

“Geographic and cultural representation guided selection to ensure findings transcended single cultural contexts.”