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Review of the stability of biochar in soils: predictability of O:C molar ratios
Open accessAbstract
Biochar is not a structured homogeneous material; rather it possesses a range of chemical structures and a heterogeneous elemental composition. This variability is based on the conditions of pyrolysis and the biomass parent material, with biochar spanning the range of various forms of black carbon. Thereby, this variability induces a broad spectrum in the observed rates of reactivity and, correspondingly, the overall chemical and microbial stability. From evaluating the current biochar and black carbon degradation studies, there is the suggestion of an overall relationship in biochar stability as a function of the molar ratio of oxygen to carbon (O:C) in the resulting black carbon. In general, a molar ratio of O:C lower than 0.2 appears to provide, at minimum, a 1000-year biochar half-life. The O:C ratio is a function of production temperature, but also accounts for other impacts (e.g., parent material and post-production conditioning/oxidation) that are not captured solely with production temperature. Therefore, the O:C ratio could provide a more robust indicator of biochar stability than production parameters (e.g., pyrolysis temperature and biomass type) or volatile matter determinations.
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“Firstly, converting waste biomass into biochar, bio-oil, and syn-gas intrinsically stores 2.20 × 10 9 t CO2e annually, because it turns labile carbon that will be rapidly mineralized into recalcitrant carbon whose half life exceeds 1000 years (Ippolito et al. 2020; Lehmann et al. 2021; Spokas 2010).”
From Role of biochar toward carbon neutrality (2023) · cites this paper as Spokas 2010
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe check wasn’t confident either way, so it gives no verdict — never disputed.
In the citing paper
“The Miscanthus biochar had H/C (0.21) and O/C (0.03) molar ratios that are typical for grass feedstocks pyrolyzed at 500 to 700°C (Spokas, 2010).”
From Remediation of an acidic mine spoil: Miscanthus biochar and lime amendment affects metal availability, plant growth, and soil enzyme activity (2018) · cites this paper as Spokas, 2010
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe check wasn’t confident either way, so it gives no verdict — never disputed.
In the citing paper
“To have a complete graphitization, a temperature greater than 1100°C should be reached during the biochar preparation (Spokas 2010).”
From Mechanisms and adsorption capacities of biochar for the removal of organic and inorganic pollutants from industrial wastewater (2021) · cites this paper as Spokas 2010
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe check wasn’t confident either way, so it gives no verdict — never disputed.
In the citing paper
“The electron donor and acceptor interaction mechanism is mostly applied to the adsorption of aromatic compounds on biochar presenting a graphene-like structure.”
From Mechanisms and adsorption capacities of biochar for the removal of organic and inorganic pollutants from industrial wastewater (2021) · cites this paper as Spokas 2010
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Citations
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Smaoui, H., Saguer, A., Bouziri, A., Fourati, S., Chahed, M. K., Jaballah, N. B., Bousnina, S. B., Barsaoui, S., Sammoud, A., Becheur, S. B., et al. (2011) · PubMed · Cited by 5
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“O/C ratios were below 0.2 for all samples except BM (0.39), suggesting, for the latter, moderate oxidative stability (Spokas 2010).”
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Biochar influences soil health but not yield in 3‐year processing tomato field trials
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Reinforcement Materials Improve the Characteristics of Metal Matrix Composites—A Review
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Tvarus medžio vaidmuo aplinkos apsaugos technologijose
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Investigation of Oak Wood Biochar Gasification in Downdraft Gasifier Using Aspen Plus Simulation
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“Furthermore, when biomass is converted into biochar, heat treatment converts unstable carbons into stable ones and largely prevents the release of CO2 into the atmosphere through decomposition (Spokas, 2010).”
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Miscanthus-Derived Biochar Enhanced Soil Fertility and Soybean Growth in Upland Soil
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Sorption Studies of Biochar-Based Composites for Removal of Organic Contaminants
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“When the O/C ratio is < 0.2, biochar can remain in the soil for over 1000 year; when 0.2 < O/C ratio < 0.6, biochar can remain in the soil for 100 to 1000 year, but when O/C ratio is > 0.6, biochar can remain in the soil for less than 100 yr 33 .”
InfluentialHakeem, I. G., Agnihotri, S., Patel, S., Veluswamy, G., Rathnayake, N., Vuppaladadiyam, A. K., Al-Waili, I., Pabba, S., Thulasiraman, A. V., Surapaneni, A., et al. (2025) · Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis · doi:10.1016/j.jaap.2025.107343 · Cited by 3
A competitive approach for the production of activated carbons from lignocellulosic biomass
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“Consequently, the residual concentration of dye molecules will be higher with higher initial dye concentrations (Spokas et al., 2010).”
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Impact of the biochar fraction sizes on the selected hydrophysical properties of silty loam soil
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“Biochar is a carbon–rich product made from biomass by pyrolysis process that takes place at high temperatures ranging from 300°C up to 900°C under low oxygen or no oxygen conditions (Spokas, 2010; Lehmann and Joseph, 2015).”
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Kumar, T., Sonia, Sodhi, P. K., Gupta, S., Nadda, A. K., Singh, G. B., & Sharma, S. (2023) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-323-85777-2.00006-8 · Cited by 3
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“These ratios are used to measure aromaticity and maturation [42].”
MethodBiochar field cases at contaminated sites
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“The long-term impacts of BCs on soil remain poorly understood [39], which was primarily because highly pyrolyzed BC has a minimum estimated half-life of 1000 years [40], raising concerns about potential effects on the soil environment.”
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“Spokas (2010) stated that the minimum half-life of biochars with an oxygen-to-carbon ratio of less than 0.2 is 1,000 years.”
InfluentialLyu, J., Obia, A., Cornelissen, G., MULDER, J. P. M., Smebye, A. B., & Zimmerman, A. R. (2024) · Geoderma · doi:10.1016/j.geoderma.2024.117153 · Cited by 3
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“(1) Biochar yield, Y bc ( % ) = Dried mass of biochar ( g ) Dried mass of feedstock ( g ) × 100 Hydrophilicity index, aromaticity index, and polarity index were calculated by O/C, H/C, and (O + N)/C, respectively [48].”
Vannini, A., Tarasconi, D., Pietropoli, F., Forte, T. G. W., Grillo, F., Carbognani, M., & Petraglia, A. (2025) · Forests · doi:10.3390/f16030474 · Cited by 3
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“to physical, chemical, and biological decomposition, making it stable in natural soil conditions for thousands of years and having a strong capacity for soil carbon sequestration 11 .”
Caracterización física y química de biochar de lodos residuales.
Machuca, M. A. V., Soriano, J. R. E., González, J. V., Soto, J. L. M., Equíhua, J. L. P., & Muñoz-Navia, M. (2019) · Terra Latinoamericana · doi:10.28940/terra.v37i3.409 · Cited by 3
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Wongrod, S., Guibaud, G., Simon, S., Lens, P. N. L., Huguenot, D., Péchaud, Y., & van Hullebusch, E. D. (2022) · Applied environmental science and engineering for a sustainable future · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-87633-3_10 · Cited by 3
Possibilities tostabilize organic matter in soil using various biochars
Qayyum, M. F. (2012) · Cited by 3
Obia, A., Martinsen, V., Cornelissen, G., Børresen, T., Smebye, A. B., Munera-Echeverri, J. L., & MULDER, J. P. M. (2019) · Climate change management · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-12974-3_6 · Cited by 4
Biochar Role in Soil Carbon Stabilization and Crop Productivity
Přichystalová, J., Holátko, J., Hammerschmiedt, T., Datta, R., Meena, R. S., Šudoma, M., Bielská, L., Radziemska, M., Gusiatin, Z. M., Kintl, A., et al. (2021) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-33-6765-4_1 · Cited by 3
Effects of Biochar Produced from Waste on Soil Quality
Zwart, K. B. (2020) · doi:10.1002/9781118921487.ch5-7 · Cited by 3
Ali, B., Razak, S. A., Arshad, A., Javed, M. A., Batool, R., Hafeez, A., Ali, S., Khan, M. N., Singh, N. K., Garhwal, V., et al. (2024) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-443-24137-6.00001-x · Cited by 2
A Study on the Carbonization Characteristics of Citrus Pomace for Biochar Production
Lee, M. H., Cho, S. I., Kwon, S. H., & Sung, Y. J. (2025) · Journal of Korea Technical Association of The Pulp and Paper Industry · doi:10.7584/jktappi.2025.6.57.3.65 · Cited by 2
Physiological Responses of Silage Maize To Drip Irrigation Regimes and Biochar Applications
Demir, Z. (2025) · Journal of Plant Growth Regulation · doi:10.1007/s00344-025-12003-z · Cited by 2
Quintana, H. A. R., Galeano-Arias, C. J., Yate-García, J. D., Huari-Quispe, R. A., & Lizcano, F. A. R. (2025) · Road Materials and Pavement Design · doi:10.1080/14680629.2025.2543888 · Cited by 2
Tan, Y., Liu, Y., Chu, T., Wang, C., Gu, Y., Chen, C., Fu, W., Yuan, J., Chen, H., & Peng, C. (2026) · Biochar X · doi:10.48130/bchax-0026-0006 · Cited by 2
Crotty, S. M., Reiners, P. W., Clayton, L. K., Young, E., Jones, A., Cregger, M. A., Starace, A. K., & Harman-Ware, A. E. (2026) · Chemical Reviews · doi:10.1021/acs.chemrev.5c00618 · Cited by 3
Production of Biochar Using Top-Lit Updraft and Its Application in Horticulture
Singh, C., Pathak, P., Chaudhary, N., & Vyas, D. (2021) · Sustainable Agriculture · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-83066-3_9 · Cited by 1
Zhang, J., Gao, Y., Jia, W. P., Zhang, X., Xu, S., Wang, C., Sun, H., Wang, L., & Zhou, S. (2023) · Waste and Biomass Valorization · doi:10.1007/s12649-023-02250-0 · Cited by 2
“…can be sustained in the soil for more than 1000 year; when O/C ratio is in the range of 0.2 and 0.6, the biochar samples can be sustained in the soil for between 100 year and 1000 year, but when O/C ratio is ≥ 0.6, the biochar samples can be sustained in the soil less for than 100 year [29].”
InfluentialPoonia, P., & Gaur, L. (2024) · Current World Environment · doi:10.12944/cwe.19.1.7 · Cited by 2
“37,45,46 Biochar with O/C less than 0.2 is most stable with a half-life greater than 1000 years; values between values 0.2 and 0.6 are moderately stable with a half-life of 100 to 1000 years, and values more than 0.6 are relatively unstable with a half-life less than 1000 years.”
InfluentialZhang, C., Wang, B., Wang, J., Rong, S., Xie, H., Qu, H., & Feng, Y. (2024) · Comptes Rendus Chimie · doi:10.5802/crchim.333 · Cited by 2
Salehin, S. M. U., Rajan, N., Mowrer, J. E., Casey, K. D., Somenahally, A., & Bagavathiannan, M. (2025) · Soil Science Society of America Journal · doi:10.1002/saj2.70008 · Cited by 2
Sathish, K., & Saraswat, S. (2025) · Cleaner Waste Systems · doi:10.1016/j.clwas.2025.100257 · Cited by 2
Muradov, N. (2014) · Lecture notes in energy · doi:10.1007/978-1-4939-0545-4_10 · Cited by 2
Efforts to Curb NOx from Greenhouse Gases by the Application of Energy Crops and Vegetation Filters
Zsuzsa, A., Apfelbacher, A., & Hornung, A. (2012) · InTech eBooks · doi:10.5772/50624 · Cited by 2
Influences of Biochar Aging Processes by Eco-Environmental Conditions
Kong, L. L., & Zhou, Q. X. (2013) · Advanced materials research · doi:10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.790.467 · Cited by 2
Application of Novel Biochars from Maize Straw Mixed with Fermentation Wastewater for Soil Health
Zhou, Y., Tian, Y., Zhang, L., Liu, Y., & Feng, L. (2017) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-10-5062-6_3 · Cited by 3
Rafique, M., Chaudhary, H. J., Ahmed, I., Bykova, A., & Ortaş, İ. (2019) · Arabian Journal of Geosciences · doi:10.1007/s12517-019-4528-4 · Cited by 2
“The variation in nutrient concentration, C-concentration, and surface structure of BC was observed under various pyrolysis conditions, and FS nature and quality (Joseph et al. 2010; Spokas 2010).”
BackgroundCarbon Dioxide Sequestration Assessment through Pyrogenic Biomass: Case for Turkey
Akyürek, Z. (2021) · Polish Journal of Environmental Studies · doi:10.15244/pjoes/129688 · Cited by 2
Valorizing saline biomass from horticultural waste via pyrolysis
Tavares, F., Canevesi, R. L. S., Aljaziri, J., Sarathy, S. M., & Grande, C. A. (2023) · Bioresource Technology Reports · doi:10.1016/j.biteb.2023.101450 · Cited by 2
Daniel, H. I., Itam, A. H., Udeh, N. U., & Ugwoha, E. (2023) · African Journal of Environmental Science and Technology · doi:10.5897/ajest2023.3200 · Cited by 2
“The primary cause is related to variations in the material characteristics from the biomass sources such as surface area (SA), aromaticity, cation exchange capacity (CEC), pH, nutritional contents, and porosity (Spokas, 2010).”
BackgroundBach, M., Wilske, B., & Breuer, L. (2017) · Carbon Management · doi:10.1080/17583004.2017.1328253 · Cited by 2
Ericsson, N. (2015) · Epsilon Open Archive (Sveriges lantbruksuniversitet biblioteket (Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences)) · doi:10.13140/rg.2.1.3508.0164 · Cited by 2
Carbon storage and sequestration under different land uses with a focus on biomass crops
Prayogo, C. (2026) · Warwick Research Archive Portal (University of Warwick) · doi:10.82444/warw.33632074 · Cited by 2
Retraction: The feasibility of char and bio-oil production from pyrolysis of pit latrine sludge
Bond, T., Tse, Q., Chambon, C. L., Fennell, P. S., Fowler, G. D., & Templeton, M. R. (2017) · Environmental Science Water Research & Technology · doi:10.1039/c7ew90022h · Cited by 2
RetractedContribuições para a pirólise da casca de macadâmia em leito de jorro cônico
Xavier, T. (2016) · doi:10.14393/ufu.te.2016.80 · Cited by 2
Agronomic Effect of Combined Application of Biochar and Nitrogen Fertilizer
Zheng, W., & Sharma, B. K. (2020) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781118921487.ch5-8 · Cited by 2
A review on the interplay between bioeconomy and soil organic carbon stocks maintenance.Preprint
Díaz, C. A., Albers, A., Zamora-Ledezma, E., & Hamelin, L. (2022) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-1447842/v1 · Cited by 4
Metadata
- Authors
- Spokas, K. A.
- Affiliations
- Agricultural Research Service (US)
- Corresponding author
- Spokas, Kurt A
- ORCID
- Spokas, Kurt A
- Venue
- Carbon Management
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2010-12
- Volume
- 1
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 289-303
- ISSN
- 1758-3004 (ISSN-L)
- 1758-3012
- OpenAlex
- W2102398472
- Cited by
- 1,160
- References
- 137
- Citations by year
- 2026: 52 · 2025: 99 · 2024: 113 · 2023: 121 · 2022: 107 · 2021: 119 · 2020: 87 · 2019: 86 · 2018: 76 · 2017: 63 · 2016: 57 · 2015: 68 · 2014: 45 · 2013: 33 · 2012: 24
- FWCI
- 35.44
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Carbon Management (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Soil Science › Soil Carbon and Nitrogen Dynamics
- Physical Sciences › Energy › Fuel Technology › Thermochemical Biomass Conversion Processes
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Global and Planetary Change › Fire effects on ecosystems
- Keywords
- biochar stability, soil carbon, black carbon, pyrolysis temperature, microbial degradation
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