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Review of the stability of biochar in soils: predictability of O:C molar ratios
Open accessAbstract
Biochar is not a structured homogeneous material; rather it possesses a range of chemical structures and a heterogeneous elemental composition. This variability is based on the conditions of pyrolysis and the biomass parent material, with biochar spanning the range of various forms of black carbon. Thereby, this variability induces a broad spectrum in the observed rates of reactivity and, correspondingly, the overall chemical and microbial stability. From evaluating the current biochar and black carbon degradation studies, there is the suggestion of an overall relationship in biochar stability as a function of the molar ratio of oxygen to carbon (O:C) in the resulting black carbon. In general, a molar ratio of O:C lower than 0.2 appears to provide, at minimum, a 1000-year biochar half-life. The O:C ratio is a function of production temperature, but also accounts for other impacts (e.g., parent material and post-production conditioning/oxidation) that are not captured solely with production temperature. Therefore, the O:C ratio could provide a more robust indicator of biochar stability than production parameters (e.g., pyrolysis temperature and biomass type) or volatile matter determinations.
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“Firstly, converting waste biomass into biochar, bio-oil, and syn-gas intrinsically stores 2.20 × 10 9 t CO2e annually, because it turns labile carbon that will be rapidly mineralized into recalcitrant carbon whose half life exceeds 1000 years (Ippolito et al. 2020; Lehmann et al. 2021; Spokas 2010).”
From Role of biochar toward carbon neutrality (2023) · cites this paper as Spokas 2010
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe check wasn’t confident either way, so it gives no verdict — never disputed.
In the citing paper
“The Miscanthus biochar had H/C (0.21) and O/C (0.03) molar ratios that are typical for grass feedstocks pyrolyzed at 500 to 700°C (Spokas, 2010).”
From Remediation of an acidic mine spoil: Miscanthus biochar and lime amendment affects metal availability, plant growth, and soil enzyme activity (2018) · cites this paper as Spokas, 2010
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe check wasn’t confident either way, so it gives no verdict — never disputed.
In the citing paper
“To have a complete graphitization, a temperature greater than 1100°C should be reached during the biochar preparation (Spokas 2010).”
From Mechanisms and adsorption capacities of biochar for the removal of organic and inorganic pollutants from industrial wastewater (2021) · cites this paper as Spokas 2010
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe check wasn’t confident either way, so it gives no verdict — never disputed.
In the citing paper
“The electron donor and acceptor interaction mechanism is mostly applied to the adsorption of aromatic compounds on biochar presenting a graphene-like structure.”
From Mechanisms and adsorption capacities of biochar for the removal of organic and inorganic pollutants from industrial wastewater (2021) · cites this paper as Spokas 2010
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BIOCHAR: PYROGENIC CARBON FOR AGRICULTURAL USE - A CRITICAL REVIEW
Novotny, E. H., Maia, C. M. B. D. F., Carvalho, M. T. D. M., & Madari, B. E. (2015) · Revista Brasileira de Ciência do Solo · doi:10.1590/01000683rbcs20140818 · Cited by 239
“The O/C ratio is an important indicator of stability and functionality of biochar and can range from 0.2 (highly stable) to 0.6 (highly functional) (Spokas, 2010). c) Flash pyrolysis Flash pyrolysis is performed at an even shorter reaction time (only a few seconds) than fast pyrolysis and so the…”
MethodInfluentialMarín-Spiotta, E., Gruley, K. E., Crawford, J., Atkinson, E. E., Miesel, J., Greene, S. L., Cardona-Correa, C., & Spencer, R. G. M. (2014) · Biogeochemistry · doi:10.1007/s10533-013-9949-7 · Cited by 234
“…condensed aromatic compounds formed during incomplete combustion of OM and long considered to be one of the least bioavailable components of OM, is susceptible to fungal colonization and degradation by bacteria (Hockaday et al. 2006; Nocentini et al. 2010; Spokas 2010; de la Rosa and Knicker 2011).”
BackgroundIndustrial biochar systems for atmospheric carbon removal: a review
Fawzy, S., Osman, A. I., Yang, H., Doran, J., & Rooney, D. W. (2021) · Environmental Chemistry Letters · doi:10.1007/s10311-021-01210-1 · Cited by 220
“Values above 0.6 indicate a half-life below 100 years (Spokas 2010).”
BackgroundInfluentialNguyen, V.-T., Nguyen, T.-B., Chen, C., Hung, C., Vo, T.-D.-H., Chang, J.-H., & Dong, C. (2019) · Bioresource Technology · doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2019.03.096 · Cited by 217
Qin, F., Zhang, C., Zeng, G., Huang, D., Tan, X., & Duan, A. (2022) · Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.rser.2021.112056 · Cited by 220
Liu, X., Zhang, Y., Li, Z., Feng, R. Y., & Zhang, Y. (2014) · Bioresource Technology · doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2014.07.077 · Cited by 227
Zeghioud, H., Fryda, L. E., Djelal, H., Assadi, A. A., & Kane, A. (2022) · Journal of Water Process Engineering · doi:10.1016/j.jwpe.2022.102801 · Cited by 221
Biochar properties: Transport, fate, and impact
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“The dotted line indicates ash content 20% (Data from: Abdullah et al., 2010; Abdullah and Wu, 2009; Bird et al., 2011a; Bird et al., 2011b; Bonelli et al., 2006; Brewer et al., 2009; Calvelo Pereira et al.; Cantrell et al., 2012; Cao and Harris, 2010; Cao et al., 2010; Crombie et al., 2013; Enders et al., 2012; Fabbri…”
BackgroundInfluentialIntegration of biogas systems into a carbon zero and hydrogen economy: a review
Farghali, M., Osman, A. I., Umetsu, K., & Rooney, D. W. (2022) · Environmental Chemistry Letters · doi:10.1007/s10311-022-01468-z · Cited by 209
Kearns, J. P., Wellborn, L. S., Summers, R. S., & Knappe, D. R. U. (2014) · Water Research · doi:10.1016/j.watres.2014.05.023 · Cited by 211
Malghani, S., Gleixner, G., & Trumbore, S. E. (2013) · Soil Biology and Biochemistry · doi:10.1016/j.soilbio.2013.03.013 · Cited by 202
“2 could be more than 1000 years (Spokas, 2010).”
BackgroundInfluentialWang, X., Zhou, W., Liang, G., Song, D., & Zhang, X. (2015) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.08.026 · Cited by 205
Monlau, F., Francavilla, M., Sambusiti, C., Antoniou, N., Solhy, A., Libutti, A., Zabaniotou, A. A., Barakat, A., & Monteleone, M. (2016) · Applied Energy · doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2016.02.084 · Cited by 203
Praneeth, S., Guo, R., Wang, T., Dubey, B., & Sarmah, A. K. (2020) · Construction and Building Materials · doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.118363 · Cited by 204
Atmospheric carbon removal via industrial biochar systems: A techno-economic-environmental study
Fawzy, S., Osman, A. I., Mehta, N., Moran, D., Al-Muhtaseb, A. H., & Rooney, D. W. (2022) · Journal of Cleaner Production · doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.133660 · Cited by 200
“Moreover, Spokas examined the durability of biochar in soils and concluded that biochar with a molar O/C ratio of less than 0.2 exhibited a half-life of at least 1000 years (Spokas, 2010).”
BackgroundInfluentialPyrolysis as an economical and ecological treatment option for municipal sewage sludge
Barry, D., Barbiero, C., Briens, C. L., & Berruti, F. (2019) · Biomass and Bioenergy · doi:10.1016/j.biombioe.2019.01.041 · Cited by 209
Gupta, S., Kashani, A., Mahmood, A. H., & Han, T. (2021) · Construction and Building Materials · doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.123363 · Cited by 198
Biochar composites: Emerging trends, field successes and sustainability implications
Wang, L., Ok, Y. S., Tsang, D. C. W., Alessi, D. S., Rinklebe, J., Mašek, O., Bolan, N. S., & Hou, D. (2021) · Soil Use and Management · doi:10.1111/sum.12731 · Cited by 206
“, 2020; Smider & Singh, 2014) and high carbon stability (Li et al., 2014; Spokas, 2010).”
BackgroundGupta, M., Savla, N., Pandit, C., Pandit, S., Gupta, P. K., Pant, M., Khilari, S., Kumar, Y., Agarwal, D., Nair, R. R., et al. (2022) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.153892 · Cited by 204
RetractedAhmad, M., Ok, Y. S., Kim, B., Ahn, J.-H., Lee, Y. H., Zhang, M., Moon, D. H., Al-Wabel, M. I., & Lee, S. S. (2015) · Journal of Environmental Management · doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2015.10.006 · Cited by 200
Srinivasan, P., Sarmah, A. K., Smernik, R. J., Das, O., Farid, M. M., & Gao, W. (2015) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.01.068 · Cited by 202
“Agronomy and C sequestration On application in soil, biochar can persist for long periods of time due to its recalcitrant nature which resists microbial degradation and mineralization (Spokas, 2010).”
BackgroundRole of biochar toward carbon neutrality
Wang, L., Deng, J., Yang, X., Hou, R., & Hou, D. (2023) · Carbon Research · doi:10.1007/s44246-023-00035-7 · Cited by 195
Application of Rice Husk Biochar for Achieving Sustainable Agriculture and Environment
Asadi, H., Ghorbani, M., Rashti, M. R., Abrishamkesh, S., Amirahmadi, E., Chengrong, C., & Gorji, M. (2021) · Rice Science · doi:10.1016/j.rsci.2021.05.004 · Cited by 214
“Higher loss of H and O indicates higher carbonization of the feedstock, greater hydrophobicity of the biochar, formation of more fused aromatic rings and stronger C structure of the biochar (Spokas, 2010).”
Tisserant, A., & Cherubini, F. (2019) · Land · doi:10.3390/land8120179 · Cited by 210
Soil burial contributes to deep soil organic carbon storage
Chaopricha, N. T., & Marín-Spiotta, E. (2014) · Soil Biology and Biochemistry · doi:10.1016/j.soilbio.2013.11.011 · Cited by 188
“During certain combustion conditions, plant and soil organic matter can be converted into condensed aromatic structures known as black C, which can persist in some soil environments for thousands of years (Spokas, 2010).”
BackgroundDomene, X., Mattana, S., Hanley, K., Enders, A., & Lehmann, J. (2014) · Soil Biology and Biochemistry · doi:10.1016/j.soilbio.2014.01.035 · Cited by 184
“…structure, biochar is more stable than any other organic amendment which provides high recalcitrance to microbial decomposition (Spokas, 2010), which has led to the consideration of biochar production as a C-negative technology for climate change mitigation (Woolf et al., 2010).”
BackgroundRutherford, D. W., Wershaw, R. L., Rostad, C. E., & Kelly, C. N. (2012) · Biomass and Bioenergy · doi:10.1016/j.biombioe.2012.06.026 · Cited by 185
Dutta, T., Kwon, E. E., Bhattacharya, S. S., Jeon, B., Deep, A., Uchimiya, M., & Kim, K. (2016) · GCB Bioenergy · doi:10.1111/gcbb.12363 · Cited by 193
“For example, Spokas (2010) reported the production of ethylene at varying rates from different biochars that might be involved in plant and soil microbial responses to biochar additions and may also act as a nitrification inhibitor (McCarty & Bremner, 1991).”
BackgroundCharacteristic of heavy metals in biochar derived from sewage sludge
Lu, T., Yuan, H., Wang, Y., Huang, H., & Chen, Y. (2015) · Journal of Material Cycles and Waste Management · doi:10.1007/s10163-015-0366-y · Cited by 179
Huff, M., Kumar, S., & Lee, J. W. (2014) · Journal of Environmental Management · doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2014.07.016 · Cited by 181
Modification of carbonation-cured cement mortar using biochar and its environmental evaluation
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“Probably, N-immobilization potential is more closely related to properties describing the chemical structure of chars and indicating char stability (ratio of aromatic to nonaromatic C and/or the molar O : C and H : C ratios; Fuertes et al., 2010; Spokas, 2010; Schimmelpfennig and Glaser, 2012).”
BackgroundGupta, S., Muthukrishnan, S., & Kua, H. W. (2020) · Construction and Building Materials · doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.121142 · Cited by 174
Biochar for Soil Carbon Sequestration: Current Knowledge, Mechanisms, and Future Perspectives
Li, S., & Tasnady, D. (2023) · C – Journal of Carbon Research · doi:10.3390/c9030067 · Cited by 206
“It provides valuable insights into the evaluation of biomass components as they undergo thermal decomposition The variation in H/C and O/C ratios in biochar serves as an indication of the chemical reaction pathways involved in its production [61].”
BackgroundXu, Z., He, M., Xu, X., Cao, X., & Tsang, D. C. W. (2021) · Bioresource Technology · doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2021.125555 · Cited by 170
Reusing biochar as a filler or cement replacement material in cementitious composites: A review
Danish, A., Ali Mosaberpanah, M., Usama Salim, M., Ahmad, N., Ahmad, F., & Ahmad, A. (2021) · Construction and Building Materials · doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.124295 · Cited by 167
Assessing biochar ecotoxicology for soil amendment by root phytotoxicity bioassays
Visioli, G., Conti, F. D., Menta, C., Bandiera, M., Malcevschi, A., Jones, D. L., & Vamerali, T. (2016) · Environmental Monitoring and Assessment · doi:10.1007/s10661-016-5173-y · Cited by 172
“Working parameters during burning of biomass (temperature, oxygen rate, supply feedstock rate, composition) can affect its chemical and physical properties, resulting in unstable composition (Spokas, 2010).”
BackgroundCampos, P., Miller, A. Z., Knicker, H., Pereira, M. F. C., Merino, A., & Arranz, J. M. D. L. R. (2020) · Waste Management · doi:10.1016/j.wasman.2020.02.013 · Cited by 176
Heitkötter, J., & Marschner, B. (2015) · Geoderma · doi:10.1016/j.geoderma.2015.01.012 · Cited by 167
Wang, Y., & Liu, R. (2017) · Fuel Processing Technology · doi:10.1016/j.fuproc.2017.02.019 · Cited by 169
Yuan, H., Lu, T., Wang, Y., Huang, H., & Chen, Y. (2014) · Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis · doi:10.1016/j.jaap.2014.09.016 · Cited by 176
Hu, J., Zhao, L., Luo, J., Gong, H., & Zhu, N. (2022) · Journal of Hazardous Materials · doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2022.129437 · Cited by 164
Budai, A., Wang, L., Grønli, M. G., Strand, L. T., Antal, M. J., Abiven, S., Dieguez-Alonso, A., Anca‐Couce, A., & Rasse, D. P. (2014) · Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry · doi:10.1021/jf501139f · Cited by 171
Zhang, J., Jin, J., Wang, M., Naidu, R., Liu, Y., Man, Y. B., Liang, X., Wong, M. H., Christie, P., Zhang, Y., et al. (2020) · Environmental Research · doi:10.1016/j.envres.2020.110034 · Cited by 162
Wijitkosum, S. (2021) · International Soil and Water Conservation Research · doi:10.1016/j.iswcr.2021.09.006 · Cited by 172
Tan, K., Qin, Y., Du, T., Li, L., Zhang, L., & Wang, J. (2021) · Construction and Building Materials · doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.123078 · Cited by 157
Mesa, A. C., Cox, L., Spokas, K. A., Celis, R., Hermosín, M. C., Cornejo, J., & Koskinen, W. C. (2011) · Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry · doi:10.1021/jf202713q · Cited by 156
Self-citationWoolf, D., Lehmann, J. C., & Lee, D. R. (2016) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/ncomms13160 · Cited by 163
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Singh, S. V., Chaturvedi, S., Dhyani, V. C., & Kasivelu, G. (2020) · Bioresource Technology · doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2020.123674 · Cited by 181
Natasha, N., Shahid, M. A. R., Khalid, S., Bibi, I., Naeem, M. A., Niazi, N. K., Tack, F. M. G., Ippolito, J. A., & Rinklebe, J. (2021) · Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology · doi:10.1080/10643389.2021.1894064 · Cited by 154
“Ethylene production in biochar-amended soil could be a contributing factor to soil microbial effects by the potential utilization of biochar as a nitrification inhibitor (Spokas, 2010).”
BackgroundPyrolysis biochar systems, balance between bioenergy and carbon sequestration
Crombie, K., & Mašek, O. (2014) · GCB Bioenergy · doi:10.1111/gcbb.12137 · Cited by 162
“There was a distinct separation between low and high temperature biochar with 650 °C char being classified as highly stable according to criteria proposed by Spokas (Spokas, 2010), IBI Guidelines (IBI Guidelines, 2012) and European biochar guidelines (Schmidt et al., 2012).”
MethodCharacterization of Food Waste and Its Digestate as Feedstock for Thermochemical Processing
Opatokun, S. A., Kan, T., Shoaibi, A. A., Srinivasakannan, C., & Strezov, V. (2015) · Energy & Fuels · doi:10.1021/acs.energyfuels.5b02183 · Cited by 149
Recent Advances in Biochar Production, Characterization, and Environmental Applications
Varkolu, M., Gundekari, S., Omvesh, Palla, V. C. S., Kumar, P., Bhattacharjee, S., & Vinodkumar, T. (2025) · Catalysts · doi:10.3390/catal15030243 · Cited by 154
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“, 2010) and associated differences in recalcitrance (Spokas, 2010), agronomic performance (Atkinson et al.”
BackgroundBiochar – Recovery Material from Pyrolysis of Sewage Sludge: A Review
Raček, J., Sevcik, J., Chorazy, T., Kučerík, J., & Hlavínek, P. (2019) · Waste and Biomass Valorization · doi:10.1007/s12649-019-00679-w · Cited by 157
Murtaza, G., Ahmed, Z., Dai, D.-Q., Iqbal, R., Bawazeer, S., Usman, M., Rizwan, M., Iqbal, J., Akram, M. I., Althubiani, A. S., et al. (2022) · Frontiers in Environmental Science · doi:10.3389/fenvs.2022.1035865 · Cited by 164
“However, if the temperature exceeds 500°C, the BC works as a donor (Spokas, 2010; Sun et al., 2014).”
InfluentialSynergistic Effects of Biochar and NPK Fertilizer on Soybean Yield in an Alkaline Soil
METE, F. Z., Mia, S., Dijkstra, F. A., Abuyusuf, M., & Hossain, A. (2015) · Pedosphere · doi:10.1016/s1002-0160(15)30052-7 · Cited by 149
Significant breakthrough in biochar cost reduction
Maroušek, J. (2014) · Clean Technologies and Environmental Policy · doi:10.1007/s10098-014-0730-y · Cited by 149
“papers drew lately attention to its positive impact on crop production, carbon storage benefits, and other environmental impacts (Lehmann and Joseph 2009; Woolf et al. 2010; Spokas 2010; Libra et al. 2011; Shackley and Sohi 2010).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialAre soil–water functions affected by biochar application?
Ojeda, G., Mattana, S., Àvila, A., Alcañiz, J. M., Volkmann, M., & Bachmann, J. (2015) · Geoderma · doi:10.1016/j.geoderma.2015.02.014 · Cited by 156
“Regarding biochar as a stable carbon pool (Spokas, 2010), resistant to biodegradation processes once it is applied to soil, its use as soil amendment could be considered to be away of obtaining soil carbon credits (Kauffman et al.”
BackgroundGonzaga, M. I. S., Mackowiak, C. L., de Almeida, A. Q., Júnior, J. I. T. D. C., & Andrade, K. R. (2017) · CATENA · doi:10.1016/j.catena.2017.10.018 · Cited by 148
Nguyen, V.-T., Vo, T.-D.-H., Nguyen, T.-B., Dat, N. D., Huu, B. T., Nguyen, X. C., Tran, T., Le, T.-N.-C., Duong, T.-G.-H., Bui, H. M., et al. (2021) · Chemosphere · doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.132577 · Cited by 148
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“The size and mean residence time of a fast-decomposing biochar pool has been shown to depend on the biochar properties (Spokas 2010).”
BackgroundWoolf, D., & Lehmann, J. C. (2012) · Biogeochemistry · doi:10.1007/s10533-012-9764-6 · Cited by 148
“…and rates of the various loss mechanisms (including erosion and leaching that do not constitute a net loss from biohydrosphere) in different environments (Cheng et al. 2008) and also variations in the chemical and physical properties of different biochars (Preston and Schmidt 2006; Spokas 2010).”
BackgroundInfluentialLateef, A., Nazir, R., Jamil, N. B., Alam, S., Shah, M. R., Khan, M. N., Saleem, M., & Rehman, S.-U. (2019) · Environmental Nanotechnology Monitoring & Management · doi:10.1016/j.enmm.2019.100212 · Cited by 149
Yoo, G., & Kang, H. (2012) · Journal of Environmental Quality · doi:10.2134/jeq2011.0157 · Cited by 143
“The C storage purpose emphasizes the long-term stability of biochar in soil (Spokas, 2010; Zimmerman et al., 2011), while the benefit of enhanced soil quality emphasizes the changes in soil nutrients and soil physical and chemical conditions (e.”
BackgroundSingh, R., Babu, J. N., Kumar, R., Srivastava, P., Singh, P., & Raghubanshi, A. S. (2015) · Ecological Engineering · doi:10.1016/j.ecoleng.2015.01.011 · Cited by 150
Biochar for Soil Improvement: Evaluation of Biochar from Gasification and Slow Pyrolysis
Fryda, L. E., & Visser, R. (2015) · Agriculture · doi:10.3390/agriculture5041076 · Cited by 150
Effect of pyrolysis temperature on chemical and physical properties of sewage sludge biochar
Khanmohammadi, Z., Afyuni, M., & Mosaddeghi, M. R. (2015) · Waste Management & Research The Journal for a Sustainable Circular Economy · doi:10.1177/0734242x14565210 · Cited by 143
“However, decomposition of hydrophobic groups at high temperatures would decrease the water repellency (Spokas, 2010).”
BackgroundKhadem, A., Raiesi, F., Besharati, H., & Khalaj, M. A. (2021) · Biochar · doi:10.1007/s42773-020-00076-w · Cited by 141
“In addition to an increase of soil fertility and quality, soil application of biochar is basically aimed at increasing C 1 3 sequestration for climate change mitigation (Spokas 2010; Windeatt et al.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialShakya, A., Vithanage, M. S., & Agarwal, T. (2022) · Environmental Research · doi:10.1016/j.envres.2022.114243 · Cited by 150
Biochar for the Removal of Emerging Pollutants from Aquatic Systems: A Review
Dong, M., He, L., Jiang, M., Zhu, Y. S., Wang, J., Gustave, W., Wang, S., Deng, Y., Zhang, X., & Wang, Z. (2023) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph20031679 · Cited by 151
Ahmad, M., Ahmad, M., Usman, A. R. A., Al-Farraj, A. S. F., Abduljabbar, A., Ok, Y. S., & Al-Wabel, M. I. (2017) · Environmental Geochemistry and Health · doi:10.1007/s10653-017-9947-0 · Cited by 139
“2 predicts a minimum halflife of 1000 years for the given biochar material (Spokas 2010).”
BackgroundKołtowski, M., Charmas, B., Skubiszewska-Zięba, J., & Oleszczuk, P. (2017) · Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety · doi:10.1016/j.ecoenv.2016.10.033 · Cited by 138
Zhao, Z., Nie, T., & Zhou, W. (2019) · Environmental Pollution · doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2019.113015 · Cited by 142
Santín, C., Doerr, S. H., Merino, A., Bucheli, T. D., Bryant, R., Ascough, P. L., Gao, X., & Masiello, C. A. (2017) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-017-10455-2 · Cited by 144
Biochar-mediated reductive transformation of nitro herbicides and explosives
Oh, S.-Y., Son, J.-G., & Chiu, P. C. (2013) · Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry · doi:10.1002/etc.2087 · Cited by 137
Biochar characterization and a method for estimating biochar quality from proximate analysis results
Klasson, K. T. (2016) · Biomass and Bioenergy · doi:10.1016/j.biombioe.2016.10.011 · Cited by 147
Thermodynamic Analysis of Nickel(II) and Zinc(II) Adsorption to Biochar
Alam, M. S., Gorman‐Lewis, D., Chen, N., Flynn, S. L., Ok, Y. S., Konhauser, K. O., & Alessi, D. S. (2018) · Environmental Science & Technology · doi:10.1021/acs.est.7b06261 · Cited by 139
Anand, A., Gautam, S., & Ram, L. C. (2023) · Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis · doi:10.1016/j.jaap.2023.105881 · Cited by 137
Kumar, A., Bhattacharya, T., Mukherjee, S., & Sarkar, B. (2022) · Biochar · doi:10.1007/s42773-022-00148-z · Cited by 137
“Biochars with O/C values below 0.2 are the most stable (half-life above 1000 years), while they are moderately stable between 0.2 and 0.6 (half-life between 100 and 1000 years) and least stable above 0.6 (half-life below 100 years) (Spokas 2010).”
BackgroundInfluentialWang, D., Lin, J. Y., Sayre, J. M., Schmidt, R., Fonte, S. J., Rodrigues, J. L. M., & Scow, K. M. (2022) · Geoderma · doi:10.1016/j.geoderma.2022.116117 · Cited by 152
Sika, M. P., & Hardie, A. G. (2013) · European Journal of Soil Science · doi:10.1111/ejss.12082 · Cited by 142
“2 may encourage a half-life of at least 1000 years in soil (Spokas, 2010), and this indicates that our biochar had a good potential for long-term C sequestration.”
BackgroundInfluentialHydrothermal carbonization of biogas digestate: Effect of digestate origin and process conditions
Cao, Z., Jung, D., Olszewski, M. P., Arauzo, P. J., & Kruse, A. (2019) · Waste Management · doi:10.1016/j.wasman.2019.09.009 · Cited by 138
Estimating the organic oxygen content of biochar
Bakshi, S., Banik, C., & Laird, D. A. (2020) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-020-69798-y · Cited by 140
Biochar efficiency in pesticides sorption as a function of production variables—a review
Yavari, S., Malakahmad, A., & Sapari, N. (2015) · Environmental Science and Pollution Research · doi:10.1007/s11356-015-5114-2 · Cited by 139
Dhar, S. A., Sakib, T. U., & Hilary, L. N. (2020) · Biomass Conversion and Biorefinery · doi:10.1007/s13399-020-01116-y · Cited by 140
“capacity and carbon sequestration [10].”
Fox, A., Kwapiński, W., Griffiths, B. S., & Schmalenberger, A. (2014) · FEMS Microbiology Ecology · doi:10.1111/1574-6941.12374 · Cited by 134
“Further contributing factors to such changes are discussed in the literature and are thought to be based on biocharassociated volatile organic compounds (Spokas, 2010; Kolton et al., 2011).”
Santín, C., Doerr, S. H., Merino, A., Bryant, R., & Loader, N. J. (2015) · Geoderma · doi:10.1016/j.geoderma.2015.09.021 · Cited by 135
“…on laboratory experiments (e.g. Badía-Villas et al., 2014; 52 Verdes and Salgado, 2011), which are not necessarily representative of field 53 conditions, due to, for example, different heating durations and oxygen availability 54 (Alexis et al., 2010; Atanassova and Doerr, 2010; Spokas, 2010).”
BackgroundSharma, T., Hakeem, I. G., Gupta, A. B., Joshi, J. B., Shah, K. V., Vuppaladadiyam, A. K., & Sharma, A. (2024) · Journal of the Energy Institute · doi:10.1016/j.joei.2024.101559 · Cited by 141
Biochar Surface Oxygenation by Ozonization for Super High Cation Exchange Capacity
Kharel, G., Sacko, O., Feng, X., Morris, J. R., Phillips, C. L., Trippe, K. M., Kumar, S., & Lee, J. W. (2019) · ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering · doi:10.1021/acssuschemeng.9b03536 · Cited by 130
Comparative analysis of biochar carbon stability methods and implications for carbon credits
Adhikari, S., Moon, E. M., Paz‐Ferreiro, J., & Timms, W. A. (2023) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.169607 · Cited by 136
Chandra, S., Medha, I., & Bhattacharya, J. (2020) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.136337 · Cited by 129
Zheng, J., Stewart, C. E., & Cotrufo, M. F. (2012) · Journal of Environmental Quality · doi:10.2134/jeq2012.0019 · Cited by 131
“…a wide variety of feedstocks (i.e., agricultural waste, agroforestry products, animal manure waste, fruit stones, and others) and may occur under a range of temperatures (Woolf et al., 2010; Lehmann et al., 2006), resulting in BC with varied physical structure and chemical makeup (Spokas, 2010).”
BackgroundBamminger, C., Marschner, B., & Jüschke, E. (2013) · European Journal of Soil Science · doi:10.1111/ejss.12074 · Cited by 126
“, 2011), which have been linked to microbial mineralization rates (Spokas, 2010).”
BackgroundWang, R., Shuai, W., Jia, P., Liu, T., Hou, D., Xie, R., Lin, Z., Ge, J., Qiao, Y., Chang, X., et al. (2019) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.04.133 · Cited by 126
Biochar affects carbon composition and stability in soil: a combined spectroscopy-microscopy study
Hernandez-Soriano, M. C., Kerré, B., Kopittke, P. M., Horemans, B., & Smolders, E. (2016) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/srep25127 · Cited by 123
Dai, Z., Meng, J., Muhammad, N., Liu, X., Wang, H., He, Y., Brookes, P. C., & Xu, J. M. (2013) · Journal of Soils and Sediments · doi:10.1007/s11368-013-0698-y · Cited by 124
“Due to its properties such as high organic C concentration, a porous structure, high pH, and high adsorption capacity (Singh et al. 2010; Spokas 2010), biochar incorporation into soil has also been considered as a feasible and effective way to improve soil quality.”
BackgroundSurface and colloid properties of biochar and implications for transport in porous media
Yang, W., Shang, J., Li, B., & Flury, M. (2019) · Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology · doi:10.1080/10643389.2019.1699381 · Cited by 123
“…particle size are freeze-thawing cycles (Carcaillet, 2001; Liu, Dugan, et al., 2018), mechanical stress caused by growth of fungal hyphae or roots (Spokas, 2010; Lehmann et al., 2011), and ingestion and dispersal by soil fauna, e.g., earthworms (Van Zwieten et al., 2010; Ameloot, Graber,…”
BackgroundXiao, F., & Pignatello, J. J. (2016) · Environmental Science & Technology · doi:10.1021/acs.est.6b00362 · Cited by 123
Metadata
- Authors
- Spokas, K. A.
- Affiliations
- Agricultural Research Service (US)
- Corresponding author
- Spokas, Kurt A
- ORCID
- Spokas, Kurt A
- Venue
- Carbon Management
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2010-12
- Volume
- 1
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 289-303
- ISSN
- 1758-3004 (ISSN-L)
- 1758-3012
- OpenAlex
- W2102398472
- Cited by
- 1,160
- References
- 137
- Citations by year
- 2026: 52 · 2025: 99 · 2024: 113 · 2023: 121 · 2022: 107 · 2021: 119 · 2020: 87 · 2019: 86 · 2018: 76 · 2017: 63 · 2016: 57 · 2015: 68 · 2014: 45 · 2013: 33 · 2012: 24
- FWCI
- 35.44
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Carbon Management (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Soil Science › Soil Carbon and Nitrogen Dynamics
- Physical Sciences › Energy › Fuel Technology › Thermochemical Biomass Conversion Processes
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Global and Planetary Change › Fire effects on ecosystems
- Keywords
- biochar stability, soil carbon, black carbon, pyrolysis temperature, microbial degradation
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