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Review of the stability of biochar in soils: predictability of O:C molar ratios
Open accessAbstract
Biochar is not a structured homogeneous material; rather it possesses a range of chemical structures and a heterogeneous elemental composition. This variability is based on the conditions of pyrolysis and the biomass parent material, with biochar spanning the range of various forms of black carbon. Thereby, this variability induces a broad spectrum in the observed rates of reactivity and, correspondingly, the overall chemical and microbial stability. From evaluating the current biochar and black carbon degradation studies, there is the suggestion of an overall relationship in biochar stability as a function of the molar ratio of oxygen to carbon (O:C) in the resulting black carbon. In general, a molar ratio of O:C lower than 0.2 appears to provide, at minimum, a 1000-year biochar half-life. The O:C ratio is a function of production temperature, but also accounts for other impacts (e.g., parent material and post-production conditioning/oxidation) that are not captured solely with production temperature. Therefore, the O:C ratio could provide a more robust indicator of biochar stability than production parameters (e.g., pyrolysis temperature and biomass type) or volatile matter determinations.
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“Firstly, converting waste biomass into biochar, bio-oil, and syn-gas intrinsically stores 2.20 × 10 9 t CO2e annually, because it turns labile carbon that will be rapidly mineralized into recalcitrant carbon whose half life exceeds 1000 years (Ippolito et al. 2020; Lehmann et al. 2021; Spokas 2010).”
From Role of biochar toward carbon neutrality (2023) · cites this paper as Spokas 2010
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe check wasn’t confident either way, so it gives no verdict — never disputed.
In the citing paper
“The Miscanthus biochar had H/C (0.21) and O/C (0.03) molar ratios that are typical for grass feedstocks pyrolyzed at 500 to 700°C (Spokas, 2010).”
From Remediation of an acidic mine spoil: Miscanthus biochar and lime amendment affects metal availability, plant growth, and soil enzyme activity (2018) · cites this paper as Spokas, 2010
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe check wasn’t confident either way, so it gives no verdict — never disputed.
In the citing paper
“To have a complete graphitization, a temperature greater than 1100°C should be reached during the biochar preparation (Spokas 2010).”
From Mechanisms and adsorption capacities of biochar for the removal of organic and inorganic pollutants from industrial wastewater (2021) · cites this paper as Spokas 2010
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe check wasn’t confident either way, so it gives no verdict — never disputed.
In the citing paper
“The electron donor and acceptor interaction mechanism is mostly applied to the adsorption of aromatic compounds on biochar presenting a graphene-like structure.”
From Mechanisms and adsorption capacities of biochar for the removal of organic and inorganic pollutants from industrial wastewater (2021) · cites this paper as Spokas 2010
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InfluentialSrinadh, R. V., Mahawar, R., & Remya, N. (2025) · Process Safety and Environmental Protection · doi:10.1016/j.psep.2025.107241 · Cited by 9
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Valorization of Cotton Gin Trash through Thermal and Biological Conversion for Soil Application
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“On the other hand, H/C ratio estimates the aromaticity while O/C evaluates the degree of oxidation and stability of the biochar [27] and (O+N)/C estimates the polarity of the biochar, which is significantly affected by the pyrolysis temperature.”
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“Therefore, all samples have potential for carbon sequestration since biochar with an O/C molar ratio between 0.2 and 0.6 has a long half-life when applied to soil, which is greater than 100 years [23].”
InfluentialBatta, N., Heuchan, S. M., Stokes-Rees, J., Moreira, C. M., & Berruti, F. (2024) · Biomass and Bioenergy · doi:10.1016/j.biombioe.2024.107266 · Cited by 8
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“According to Spokas [64], biochar with an O/C molar ratio of less than 0.2 are typically the most stable, with an estimated half-life of more than 1000 years; molar ratio O/C of 0.2-0.6 has an intermediate half-life (100-1000 years); and, the biochar with an O/C ratio greater than 0.6 has a half-life in the order of 1…”
MethodInfluentialBiochar for sustainable agriculture: Prospects and implications
Vanapalli, K. R., Samal, B., Dubey, B., & Bhattacharya, J. (2021) · Advances in chemical pollution, environmental management and protection · doi:10.1016/bs.apmp.2021.08.008 · Cited by 8
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“At the same time, the H/C of the four bio-chars was 0.6 and O/C 2, indicating that the sheep manure bio-chars prepared under different pyrolysis conditions all had high biochemical stability (Spokas 2010).”
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“The chemical stability of biochar against microbial degradation might be associated with low O/C molar ratios (O/C < 0.20; Spokas 2010), high C distribution (Keiluweit et al.”
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“It encompasses diverse forms of black carbon, varying in properties based on the feedstock, pyrolysis unit, and processing conditions (Spokas 2010).”
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Wood-Based Micro-Biochars in a Cement Mixture
Pyo, M., Kim, J., Seok, S., Park, C. H., & Choi, W. (2025) · Molecules · doi:10.3390/molecules30091898 · Cited by 10
Role of pyrolysis temperature on application dose of rice straw biochar as soil amendment
Mondal, S. C., Sarma, B., Narzari, R., Gogoi, L., Kataki, R., Garg, A., & Gogoi, N. (2022) · Environmental Sustainability · doi:10.1007/s42398-022-00217-w · Cited by 7
“The calculated value (0.4–0.5) of the degree of polarity (O/C ratio) of rice straw-derived biochar used in this experiment designates a mean residence time of 100–1000 years as suggested by Spokas (2010).”
InfluentialBiochar amendments make the harvesting of crop residue for bioenergy production sustainable
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“…emerging in the scientific literature on the effects of soil biochar amendments on soil quality: (1) Biochar is effective for sequestering C in soils (half-life of biochar C > > 100 years for biochars produced at pyrolysis temperatures ≥ 500 °C) (Spokas 2010; Fang et al. 2013; Lehmann et al. 2021).”
InfluentialAkhtar, A., Jiříček, I., Krepl, V., Mehrabadi, A., & Ivanova, T. A. (2024) · Biofuels · doi:10.1080/17597269.2024.2304957 · Cited by 7
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“Spokas (2010) suggested that O:C molar ratio is the most reliable predictor of biochar stability.”
BackgroundCharacterization of Novel Torrefied Biomass and Biochar Amendments
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“This material also possessed a moderate C stability, owning to its O/C ratio ≤0.4 and volatile matter/fixed C <3.0 (Spokas 2010; Klasson 2017).”
BackgroundInfluentialSlesak, R. A., Kelso, S. G., & Windmuller-Campione, M. A. (2021) · Forest Science · doi:10.1093/forsci/fxab053 · Cited by 7
“2017) and its long residence time in soil (Spokas 2010).”
BackgroundPreparation of structured biochar, its adsorption capacity of N and P and its characterization
Fanfan, L., Yungen, L., Wang, Y., Silin, Y., & Ma, R. (2022) · Water Science & Technology · doi:10.2166/wst.2022.143 · Cited by 7
Toxicological Effect Assessment of Aged Biochar on Escherichia Coli
Liu, B., Tang, C., Zhao, Y., Cheng, K., & Yang, F. (2022) · Journal of Hazardous Materials · doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2022.129242 · Cited by 7
Zhang, S., Hu, H., Jia, X., Wang, X., Chen, J., Cheng, C., Jia, X., Wu, Z., & Zhu, L. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph191811205 · Cited by 10
Produção e caracterização do biocarvão obtido de palha de cana-de-açúcar
Silva, H. D. M., Alcântara, G. U., de Souza, L. Z. M., Bezerra, A. C. D. S., Gonçalves, E. P., Costa, G. H. G., Alves, A. B., Machado, A. R. T., & Ferreira, O. E. (2023) · Matéria (Rio de Janeiro) · doi:10.1590/1517-7076-rmat-2023-0218 · Cited by 9
Use of Biochar and Oxidized Lignite for Reconstructing a Functioning Topsoil
Bekele, A., Roy, J., & Young, M. (2013) · Soil Science · doi:10.1097/01.ss.0000435534.41794.15 · Cited by 7
Sustainable Bioenergy Feedstock Production Systems
Johnson, J. M. F., & Novak, J. M. (2012) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-386897-8.00008-5 · Cited by 7
Impact of lignocellulosic and hemicellulosic biochar on soil moisture in low clay soils
Licht, J., Smith, N., Mitchell, P. J., & Shields, F. (2017) · Journal of Plant Nutrition and Soil Science · doi:10.1002/jpln.201700221 · Cited by 7
Rahman, M. U. (2019) · IntechOpen eBooks · doi:10.5772/intechopen.77828 · Cited by 7
Aqua regia digestion cannot completely extract Hg from biochar: A synchrotron-based study
Liu, W., Feng, Y., Zhong, H., Ptacek, C. J., Blowes, D. W., Liu, Y., Finfrock, Y. Z., Liu, P., & Wang, S. (2020) · Environmental Pollution · doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2020.115002 · Cited by 7
Paini, J., Benedetti, V., Ferrentino, G., Baratieri, M., & Patuzzi, F. (2020) · Biomass Conversion and Biorefinery · doi:10.1007/s13399-020-00858-z · Cited by 7
Carbon Stability of Biochar : Methods for assessment and indication
Söderqvist, H. (2019) · KTH Publication Database DiVA (KTH Royal Institute of Technology) · Cited by 8
Biochar Stability in a Highly Weathered Sandy Soil under Four Years of Continuous Corn Production
Novak, J. M., Watts, D. W., Sigua, G. C., Myers, W. T., Ducey, T. F., & Rushmiller, H. C. (2021) · Energies · doi:10.3390/en14196157 · Cited by 8
“These characteristics are reported to be salient properties for biochar longevity in soils [14,15].”
BackgroundMateo, K., Cai, M., Héroux, M., & An, C. (2024) · Water Air & Soil Pollution · doi:10.1007/s11270-024-07482-x · Cited by 6
“The oxy-gen-carbon ratio of biochar has been suggested as one way to predict stability, with lower ratios having a half-life of upwards of a thousand years (Spokas, 2010).”
Kwapińska, M., Burke, N., & Leahy, J. J. (2025) · Chemical Engineering Journal Advances · doi:10.1016/j.ceja.2025.100888 · Cited by 8
Weathering of biochar: implications to soil health, carbon sequestration and soil remediation
Bolan, N., Mukherjee, S., Bolan, S., Sharma, S., Spokas, K. A., Melo, J. L. M., Padilla, J. T., Houben, D., Veloso, M. G., Groß, A., et al. (2026) · Biochar · doi:10.1007/s42773-026-00615-x · Cited by 7
Self-citationSlesak, R. A., & Windmuller-Campione, M. A. (2023) · Canadian Journal of Forest Research · doi:10.1139/cjfr-2023-0092 · Cited by 6
Werner, C., Lucht, W., Kammann, C. I., & Braun, J. (2024) · Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change · doi:10.1007/s11027-024-10130-8 · Cited by 6
“To ensure biochars exhibit high durability, production must occur at elevated temperatures with extended residence times, promoting complete carbonization and the formation of fused aromatic structures, indicated by low H/C ratios (Ippolito et al. 2020; Spokas 2010).”
BackgroundMcMurtry, A., Kasmerchak, C. S., Vaughan, E. A., Dolui, M., Phillips, L. M., Mueller, C. W., Pett‐Ridge, J., Berhe, A. A., Mason, J. A., Marín-Spiotta, E., et al. (2024) · Soil Biology and Biochemistry · doi:10.1016/j.soilbio.2024.109549 · Cited by 6
Do oversimplified durability metrics undervalue biochar carbon dioxide removal?
Ringsby, A. J., & Maher, K. (2025) · Environmental Research Letters · doi:10.1088/1748-9326/adac7b · Cited by 6
Utilization of carbon produced by torrefaction of grass for energy purposes and related risks
Raclavský, K., Raclavská, H., Kovaľová, L., Škrobánková, H., & Frydrych, J. (2015) · IEEE International Conference on Environment and Electrical Engineering and IEEE Industrial and Commercial Power Systems Europe (EEEIC / I&CPS Europe) · doi:10.1109/eeeic.2015.7165476 · Cited by 6
“• O/C ratio determines the stability of biochar [6].”
BackgroundEnergetic potential of pyrolyzed biomass from different sources: a comparative study
Malucelli, L. C., Carneiro, J., de Vasconcelos, E. C., Magalhães, W. L. E., Murakami, F. S., & Filho, M. A. S. C. (2019) · Journal of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry · doi:10.1007/s10973-019-09061-3 · Cited by 6
Shao, H., Wei, Y., Zhang, F., & Li, F. (2020) · Water Air & Soil Pollution · doi:10.1007/s11270-020-04922-2 · Cited by 6
“In addition, the lower O/C ratios indicate the higher organic aromaticity of biochars normally (Spokas 2010), and biochars with higher aromaticity are commonly more resistant to decomposition and hence more stable in the environment (Huang et al. 2017).”
BackgroundRheological Behavior of High Density Polyethylene (HDPE) Filled with Corn Stalk Biochar
Wang, Y., Liu, X., Shi, Z., Lin, Y., Yang, Y., Yang, Q. S., Dong, S., & Lan, T. (2021) · ChemistrySelect · doi:10.1002/slct.202102663 · Cited by 6
Santos, J. A., Gonzaga, M. I. S., de Almeida, A. Q., da Silva, A. J., Santos, J. C. D. J., & Lima, I. D. S. (2022) · Research Society and Development · doi:10.33448/rsd-v11i5.28360 · Cited by 6
Kujawska, J., Bilicz, E., & Mendyk, E. (2022) · Civil And Environmental Engineering Reports · doi:10.2478/ceer-2022-0050 · Cited by 6
Biochar: Porous Carbon Material, Its Role to Maintain Sustainable Environment
Dey, D., Sarangi, D., & Mondal, P. (2023) · Materials horizons · doi:10.1007/978-981-19-7188-4_22 · Cited by 6
Nahuat-Sansores, J. R., Cruz, J. C., Gurrola, M. P., & Trejo-Arroyo, D. L. (2022) · Revista de Ingeniería Civil · doi:10.35429/jce.2022.16.6.12.31 · Cited by 6
Nan, H., Jiang, Y., Zhou, W., Zhao, L., & Yang, F. (2023) · Agronomy · doi:10.3390/agronomy13071676 · Cited by 5
“Biochar is a carbonrich material generated from biowaste under an O2-limited and heating condition [1,2], and its application in soil can reduce CO2 emissions to the atmosphere during the global carbon cycle [3,4].”
BackgroundZhang, Q., Cao, Y., He, M., Lei, H., Song, H., Alessi, D. S., & Tsang, D. C. W. (2023) · Bioresource Technology · doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2023.130211 · Cited by 8
Kim, S.-W., Jeong, G.-H., Hong, Y.-J., & Kim, J.-S. (2024) · Journal of the Korean Society for Advanced Composite Structures · doi:10.11004/kosacs.2024.15.1.018 · Cited by 6
Changes in the composition and properties of biochar after one-year application
Bovsun, M., Nesterova, О., Semal, V., Khokhlova, A. I., & Сакара, Н. А. (2020) · E3S Web of Conferences · doi:10.1051/e3sconf/202021710009 · Cited by 11
Metadata
- Authors
- Spokas, K. A.
- Affiliations
- Agricultural Research Service (US)
- Corresponding author
- Spokas, Kurt A
- ORCID
- Spokas, Kurt A
- Venue
- Carbon Management
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2010-12
- Volume
- 1
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 289-303
- ISSN
- 1758-3004 (ISSN-L)
- 1758-3012
- OpenAlex
- W2102398472
- Cited by
- 1,160
- References
- 137
- Citations by year
- 2026: 52 · 2025: 99 · 2024: 113 · 2023: 121 · 2022: 107 · 2021: 119 · 2020: 87 · 2019: 86 · 2018: 76 · 2017: 63 · 2016: 57 · 2015: 68 · 2014: 45 · 2013: 33 · 2012: 24
- FWCI
- 35.44
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Carbon Management (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Soil Science › Soil Carbon and Nitrogen Dynamics
- Physical Sciences › Energy › Fuel Technology › Thermochemical Biomass Conversion Processes
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Global and Planetary Change › Fire effects on ecosystems
- Keywords
- biochar stability, soil carbon, black carbon, pyrolysis temperature, microbial degradation
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