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Review of the stability of biochar in soils: predictability of O:C molar ratios
Open accessAbstract
Biochar is not a structured homogeneous material; rather it possesses a range of chemical structures and a heterogeneous elemental composition. This variability is based on the conditions of pyrolysis and the biomass parent material, with biochar spanning the range of various forms of black carbon. Thereby, this variability induces a broad spectrum in the observed rates of reactivity and, correspondingly, the overall chemical and microbial stability. From evaluating the current biochar and black carbon degradation studies, there is the suggestion of an overall relationship in biochar stability as a function of the molar ratio of oxygen to carbon (O:C) in the resulting black carbon. In general, a molar ratio of O:C lower than 0.2 appears to provide, at minimum, a 1000-year biochar half-life. The O:C ratio is a function of production temperature, but also accounts for other impacts (e.g., parent material and post-production conditioning/oxidation) that are not captured solely with production temperature. Therefore, the O:C ratio could provide a more robust indicator of biochar stability than production parameters (e.g., pyrolysis temperature and biomass type) or volatile matter determinations.
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“Firstly, converting waste biomass into biochar, bio-oil, and syn-gas intrinsically stores 2.20 × 10 9 t CO2e annually, because it turns labile carbon that will be rapidly mineralized into recalcitrant carbon whose half life exceeds 1000 years (Ippolito et al. 2020; Lehmann et al. 2021; Spokas 2010).”
From Role of biochar toward carbon neutrality (2023) · cites this paper as Spokas 2010
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe check wasn’t confident either way, so it gives no verdict — never disputed.
In the citing paper
“The Miscanthus biochar had H/C (0.21) and O/C (0.03) molar ratios that are typical for grass feedstocks pyrolyzed at 500 to 700°C (Spokas, 2010).”
From Remediation of an acidic mine spoil: Miscanthus biochar and lime amendment affects metal availability, plant growth, and soil enzyme activity (2018) · cites this paper as Spokas, 2010
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe check wasn’t confident either way, so it gives no verdict — never disputed.
In the citing paper
“To have a complete graphitization, a temperature greater than 1100°C should be reached during the biochar preparation (Spokas 2010).”
From Mechanisms and adsorption capacities of biochar for the removal of organic and inorganic pollutants from industrial wastewater (2021) · cites this paper as Spokas 2010
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe check wasn’t confident either way, so it gives no verdict — never disputed.
In the citing paper
“The electron donor and acceptor interaction mechanism is mostly applied to the adsorption of aromatic compounds on biochar presenting a graphene-like structure.”
From Mechanisms and adsorption capacities of biochar for the removal of organic and inorganic pollutants from industrial wastewater (2021) · cites this paper as Spokas 2010
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“2016) and low O/C and H/C ratios (Spokas 2010) should be applied to soils.”
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“To have a complete graphitization, a temperature greater than 1100 °C should be reached during the biochar preparation (Spokas 2010).”
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The amazing potential of fungi: 50 ways we can exploit fungi industrially
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“Total graphitization of biochar occurs at temperatures > 1100 C (Spokas, 2010), but uneven charge distributions within the aromatic rings of biochars at > 500 C (Keiluweit et al., 2010) can increase, or reduce its electron density, creating p-electron-rich or deficient systems (Zhu and Pignatello,…”
BackgroundNatural climate solutions for the United States
Fargione, J. E., Bassett, S., Boucher, T., Bridgham, S. D., Conant, R. T., Cook-Patton, S. C., Ellis, P. W., Falcucci, A., Fourqurean, J. W., Gopalakrishna, T., et al. (2018) · Science Advances · doi:10.1126/sciadv.aat1869 · Cited by 588
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Chen, W., Meng, J., Han, X., Lan, Y., & Zhang, W. (2019) · Biochar · doi:10.1007/s42773-019-00008-3 · Cited by 552
“Studies have shown that the straw biochar prepared at 300 °C had a water-holding capacity of 13 × 10−4 ml m−2, however, when carbonization temperature was raised to 700 °C, it was reduced to 4.1 × 10−4 ml m−2 (Spokas 2010).”
InfluentialStandardized Product Definition and Product Testing Guidelines for Biochar That Is Used in Soil
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“The utility of elemental ratios, provided by ultimate analysis, as indicators of biochar stability has been extensively researched (Kuhlbusch, 1995; Hedges et al., 2000; Masiello, 2004; Spokas, 2010; IBI Guidelines, 2012; Schmidt et al., 2012).”
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“…agronomic and environment-related benefits including allaying global warming, restoring degraded lands, enhancing agricultural productivity, and offsetting stream and groundwater pollution (Lehmann et al. 2006; Spokas 2010; Barrow 2012; Stavi and Lal 2013; Cayuela et al. 2013; Liu et al. 2014).”
BackgroundCharacteristics and applications of biochar for environmental remediation: a review
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Bolan, S. S., Hou, D., Wang, L., Hale, L. E., Egamberdieva, D., Tammeorg, P., Li, R., Wang, B., Xu, J., Wang, T., et al. (2023) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.163968 · Cited by 557
“Therefore, the half-life of wood bio-chars is much longer than other biochars (Spokas, 2010).”
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“Moreover, because complete graphitization requires temperatures in excess of 1000 C, the biomass often is not completely or uniformly charred, leading to highly variable chemical properties within the same biochar batch (McBeath and Smernik, 2009; Spokas, 2010; Harvey et al., 2011).”
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“tend to have high stability, and is estimated to have a half-life of up to 1000 years (Spokas, 2010).”
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“This finding agrees with the study by Spokas (2010) who predicted a half-life of 1000 years for BCs with the O/ C molar ratio of 2.0.”
ResultInfluentialMicrobial utilisation of biochar-derived carbon
Farrell, M., Kuhn, T. K., Macdonald, L. M., Maddern, T. M., Murphy, D. V., Hall, P. A., Singh, B. P., Baumann, K., Krull, E. S., & Baldock, J. (2013) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2013.03.090 · Cited by 388
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“Spokas (2010) suggested that a low O/C value (i.e., <0.2) will lead to long- term stability (half- life > 1,000 years).”
BackgroundInfluentialBiochar addition rate influences soil microbial abundance and activity in temperate soils
Gómez, J. D., Denef, K., Stewart, C. E., Zheng, J., & Cotrufo, M. F. (2013) · European Journal of Soil Science · doi:10.1111/ejss.12097 · Cited by 379
“Our understanding of the effects of BC on soils has improved significantly in the few years since it was first dis- cussed (Glaser et al., 2002), as testified by several recent reviews (Spokas, 2010; Jeffery et al., 2011; Lehmann et al., 2011).”
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“Spokas (2010) claimed that hydrochars with molar O:C ratios greater than 0.6 could be expected to remain stable for the order of 100 years, and that stability increased as the O:C becomes lower.”
InfluentialUsman, A. R. A., Abduljabbar, A., Vithanage, M. S., Ok, Y. S., Ahmad, M., Ahmad, M., Elfaki, J. T., Sallam, A. S., & Al-Wabel, M. I. (2015) · Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis · doi:10.1016/j.jaap.2015.08.016 · Cited by 366
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Physical Disintegration of Biochar: An Overlooked Process
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Self-citationReturning biochar to fields: A review
Tan, Z., Lin, C. S. K., Ji, X., & Rainey, T. J. (2017) · Applied Soil Ecology · doi:10.1016/j.apsoil.2017.03.017 · Cited by 351
Biochar’s role as an alternative N-fertilizer: Ammonia capture
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The way forward in biochar research: targeting trade‐offs between the potential wins
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“…the timeframe over which C remains sequestered in the soil is uncertain as biochar properties vary and depend on feedstock type and processing conditions (e.g., fast vs. slow pyrolysis, pyrolysis temperature) (Spokas 2010; Zimmerman 2010), local climatic conditions, soil type and native soil biota.”
BackgroundInfluentialImpacts of biochar application on upland agriculture: A review
Palansooriya, K. N., Ok, Y. S., Awad, Y. M., Lee, S. S., Sung, J.-K., Koutsospyros, A. D., & Moon, D. H. (2019) · Journal of Environmental Management · doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2018.12.085 · Cited by 309
Biochar application to soil for climate change mitigation by soil organic carbon sequestration
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Impact of biochar properties on soil conditions and agricultural sustainability: A review
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“The large variability in the physico–chemical characteristics of biochar is primarily due to the feedstocks and pyrolysis conditions used, such as temperature range, vapor residence time, and heating rate (Spokas, 2010; Zimmerman, Gao, & Ahn, 2011).”
BackgroundBiochar accelerates PAHs biodegradation in petroleum-polluted soil by biostimulation strategy
Kong, L., Gao, Y., Zhou, Q., Zhao, X., & Sun, Z. (2017) · Journal of Hazardous Materials · doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2017.09.040 · Cited by 300
“Depending on feedstock types and temperature of pyrolysis the nature of biochars was different[56-58], thus leading to a great impact on biochar performance in soil remediation.”
BackgroundLiu, G., Zheng, H., Jiang, Z., Zhao, J. L., Wang, Z., Pan, B., & Xing, B. (2018) · Environmental Science & Technology · doi:10.1021/acs.est.8b01481 · Cited by 299
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A critical review on production, modification and utilization of biochar
Xie, Y., Wang, L., Li, H., Westholm, L. J., Carvalho, L., Thorin, E., Yu, Z., Yu, X., & Skreiberg, Ø. (2021) · Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis · doi:10.1016/j.jaap.2021.105405 · Cited by 314
Biochar-surface oxygenation with hydrogen peroxide
Huff, M. D., & Lee, J. W. (2016) · Journal of Environmental Management · doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2015.08.046 · Cited by 286
Biomass for thermochemical conversion: targets and challenges
Tanger, P., Field, J., Jahn, C. E., DeFoort, M. W., & Leach, J. E. (2013) · Frontiers in Plant Science · doi:10.3389/fpls.2013.00218 · Cited by 306
“…et al., 2010; Energy Research Centre of the Netherlands, 2012; Tao et al., 2012a,b; Zhao et al., 2012a. bSmith et al., 1985; Coovattanachai, 1989; Spokas, 2010; Energy Research Centre of the Netherlands, 2012; Tao et al., 2012a,b; Zhao et al., 2012a. cJenkins et al., 1998; McKendry, 2002a; Mani…”
BackgroundCriteria to Select Biochars for Field Studies based on Biochar Chemical Properties
Brewer, C. E., Unger, R., Schmidt‐Rohr, K., & Brown, R. C. (2011) · BioEnergy Research · doi:10.1007/s12155-011-9133-7 · Cited by 297
“The criteria used included basic biochar characteristics such as volatiles content (related to probability of short-term N immobilization [32]) and total carbon content (related to potential carbon sequestration [26]), carbon composition and aromaticity from advanced characterization techniques such as nuclear magneti…”
Wang, J., Shi, L., Zhai, L., Zhang, H., Wang, S., Zou, J., Shen, Z., Lian, C., & Chen, Y. (2020) · Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety · doi:10.1016/j.ecoenv.2020.111261 · Cited by 296
Butnan, S., Deenik, J. L., Toomsan, B., Antal, M. J., & Vityakon, P. (2015) · Geoderma · doi:10.1016/j.geoderma.2014.08.010 · Cited by 282
“This process can enhance surface oxidation or aging of the biochar (Spokas, 2010) leading to increasing CEC.”
BackgroundComprehensive review on production and utilization of biochar
Panwar, N. L., Pawar, A., & Salvi, B. L. (2019) · SN Applied Sciences · doi:10.1007/s42452-019-0172-6 · Cited by 303
Biochar production and applications in agro and forestry systems: a review
Wang, D., Jiang, P., Zhang, H., & Yuan, W. (2020) · Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.137775 · Cited by 280
Effects of different feedstocks-based biochar on soil remediation: A review
Ji, M., Wang, X., Usman, M., Liu, F., Dan, Y., Zhou, L., Campanaro, S., Luo, G., & Sang, W. (2021) · Environmental Pollution · doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2021.118655 · Cited by 296
Yuan, H., Ding, L., Zama, E. F., Liu, P., Hozzein, W. N., & Zhu, Y. (2018) · Environmental Science & Technology · doi:10.1021/acs.est.8b04121 · Cited by 271
A meta‐analysis on pyrogenic organic matter induced priming effect
Maestrini, B., Nannipieri, P., & Abiven, S. (2015) · GCB Bioenergy · doi:10.1111/gcbb.12194 · Cited by 267
“Moreover PyOM, being a complex blend of molecules (Schmidt & Noack, 2000; Keiluweit et al., 2010; Spokas, 2010), is likely to represent the kind of substrate that can trigger the growth of k-strategists microbes.”
BackgroundEffect of feedstock and pyrolysis temperature on properties of biochar governing end use efficacy
Zhang, H., Chen, C. R., Gray, E. M., & Boyd, S. E. (2017) · Biomass and Bioenergy · doi:10.1016/j.biombioe.2017.06.024 · Cited by 280
Elzobair, K. A., Stromberger, M. E., Ippolito, J. A., & Lentz, R. D. (2015) · Chemosphere · doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2015.06.044 · Cited by 266
“Biochar C is recalcitrant in nature (Spokas, 2010) and its reactive surfaces are capable of sorbing and exchanging nutrients and native organic matter (Liang et al., 2006); therefore, there is a great interest in utilizing biochar as a soil amendment to sequester C and improve soil fertility in…”
BackgroundKasera, N., Kolar, P., & Hall, S. (2022) · Biochar · doi:10.1007/s42773-022-00145-2 · Cited by 265
“According to Spokas (Kurt 2010), a temperature > 1100 °C is required for the complete graphitization of biochar.”
BackgroundImpact of biochar field aging on laboratory greenhouse gas production potentials
Spokas, K. A. (2012) · GCB Bioenergy · doi:10.1111/gcbb.12005 · Cited by 257
“Due to the fact that biochar is a chemical–thermal transformation product of the original biomass, biochar is part of the black carbon continuum (Spokas, 2010).”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationEffect of pyrolysis temperature on the chemical oxidation stability of bamboo biochar
Chen, D., Yu, X., Song, C., Pang, X., Huang, J., & Li, Y. (2016) · Bioresource Technology · doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2016.07.112 · Cited by 258
Plenty of room for carbon on the ground: Potential applications of biochar for stormwater treatment
Mohanty, S. K., Valenca, R., Berger, A. W., Yu, I. K. M., Xiong, X., Saunders, T. M., & Tsang, D. C. W. (2018) · Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.01.037 · Cited by 249
Sri Shalini, S., Palanivelu, K., Ramachandran, A., & Raghavan, V. (2021) · Biomass Conversion and Biorefinery · doi:10.1007/s13399-020-00604-5 · Cited by 257
Incorporation of biochar in cementitious materials: A roadmap of biochar selection
Maljaee, H., Madadi, R., Paiva, H., Tarelho, L., & Ferreira, V. M. (2021) · Construction and Building Materials · doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.122757 · Cited by 250
A method for screening the relative long‐term stability of biochar
Cross, A., & Sohi, S. P. (2013) · GCB Bioenergy · doi:10.1111/gcbb.12035 · Cited by 247
“Stability could be to a large extent determined by the degree of aromatic linked sheet development, and the incidence of these defect structures, both of which are also influenced by pyrolysis production temperature (Leifeld, 2007; Spokas, 2010).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialFang, J., Gao, B., Chen, J., & Zimmerman, A. R. (2015) · Chemical Engineering Journal · doi:10.1016/j.cej.2015.01.026 · Cited by 249
Biochar from woody biomass for removing metal contaminants and carbon sequestration
Abdel‐Fattah, T. M., Mahmoud, M. E., Ahmed, S. B., Huff, M., Lee, J. W., & Kumar, S. (2014) · Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry · doi:10.1016/j.jiec.2014.06.030 · Cited by 250
Biochar and forest restoration: a review and meta-analysis of tree growth responses
Thomas, S. C., & Gale, N. V. (2015) · New Forests · doi:10.1007/s11056-015-9491-7 · Cited by 260
Magid, A. S. I. A., Islam, M. S., Chen, Y., Weng, L., Li, J., Ma, J., & Li, Y. (2021) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.147115 · Cited by 248
Fire-derived organic carbon in soil turns over on a centennial scale
Singh, N., Abiven, S., Torn, M. S., & Schmidt, M. W. (2012) · Biogeosciences · doi:10.5194/bg-9-2847-2012 · Cited by 253
“Spokas (2010) observed an increase in stability of PyC with a decrease in the O : C molar ratio of PyC.”
BackgroundStewart, C. E., Zheng, J., Botte, J., & Cotrufo, M. F. (2012) · GCB Bioenergy · doi:10.1111/gcbb.12001 · Cited by 258
“Because hemicellulose, cellulose, and lignin all have predictable thermal decomposition trajectories (i.e., Yang et al., 2007), pyrolysis temperature has often been used as a surrogate for BC stability in soil (Spokas, 2010).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialZhang, H., Voroney, R. P., & Price, G. W. (2015) · Soil Biology and Biochemistry · doi:10.1016/j.soilbio.2015.01.006 · Cited by 238
Mimmo, T., Panzacchi, P., Baratieri, M., Davies, C. A., & Tonon, G. (2014) · Biomass and Bioenergy · doi:10.1016/j.biombioe.2014.01.004 · Cited by 240
Varjani, S., Kumar, G., & Rene, E. R. (2018) · Journal of Environmental Management · doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2018.11.043 · Cited by 243
Shen, Y., Linville, J. L., Leon, P. A. I.-D., Schoene, R. P., & Urgun‐Demirtas, M. (2016) · Journal of Cleaner Production · doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.06.144 · Cited by 247
Abbas, Z., Ali, S., Rizwan, M., Zaheer, I. E., Malik, A., Riaz, M. A., Shahid, M. R., Rehman, M. Z. U., & Al-Wabel, M. I. (2018) · Arabian Journal of Geosciences · doi:10.1007/s12517-018-3790-1 · Cited by 236
“Biochar required a temperature of > 1100 °C for complete graphitization (Spokas 2010), but at less than 500 °C, irregular sharing of charge between the aromatic rings within the biochar resulted either in an increase or decrease in the electron density of biochar, generating π–electron-enriched or…”
BackgroundGupta, S., Kua, H. W., & Pang, S. D. (2019) · Construction and Building Materials · doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.117338 · Cited by 252
Xu, J., Liu, J., Ling, P., Zhang, X., Xu, K., He, L., Wang, Y., Su, S., Hu, S., & Xiang, J. H. (2020) · Energy · doi:10.1016/j.energy.2020.117644 · Cited by 230
Biochar industry to circular economy
Hu, Q., Jung, J. K. H., Chen, D., Leong, K., Song, S., Li, F., Mohan, B. C., Yao, Z., Prabhakar, A. K., Lin, X. H., et al. (2020) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.143820 · Cited by 235
Gurwick, N. P., Moore, L. A., Kelly, C. N., & Elias, P. (2013) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0075932 · Cited by 244
“Data from laboratory studies could be valuable for investigating mechanisms that control biochar behavior in the environment and its effects on ecosystem services [11,34,35].”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialBiochar Role in the Sustainability of Agriculture and Environment
Ayaz, M., Feizienė, D., Tilvikienė, V., Akhtar, K., Stulpinaitė, U., & Iqbal, R. (2021) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su13031330 · Cited by 242
“The alkaline nature of biochar and organic carbon richness also enhance cation exchange capacity (CEC), which leads to a greater heavy metal adsorption capacity [59], and thus improves soil quality [60].”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Spokas, K. A.
- Affiliations
- Agricultural Research Service (US)
- Corresponding author
- Spokas, Kurt A
- ORCID
- Spokas, Kurt A
- Venue
- Carbon Management
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2010-12
- Volume
- 1
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 289-303
- ISSN
- 1758-3004 (ISSN-L)
- 1758-3012
- OpenAlex
- W2102398472
- Cited by
- 1,160
- References
- 137
- Citations by year
- 2026: 52 · 2025: 99 · 2024: 113 · 2023: 121 · 2022: 107 · 2021: 119 · 2020: 87 · 2019: 86 · 2018: 76 · 2017: 63 · 2016: 57 · 2015: 68 · 2014: 45 · 2013: 33 · 2012: 24
- FWCI
- 35.44
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Carbon Management (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Soil Science › Soil Carbon and Nitrogen Dynamics
- Physical Sciences › Energy › Fuel Technology › Thermochemical Biomass Conversion Processes
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Global and Planetary Change › Fire effects on ecosystems
- Keywords
- biochar stability, soil carbon, black carbon, pyrolysis temperature, microbial degradation
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