The DOI matches its Crossref record.
Instructional Design Theories and Models
Abstract
Instructional Design Theories and Models is a thorough yet concise overview of eight of the most comprehensive and best-known attempts to integrate knowledge about effective and appealing instruction. Chapters were written by the original theorists to provide a more accurate and behind-the-scenes look at the theories' development. Instructional Des
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“Our study was guided by the elaboration theory, developed by Reigeluth and colleagues in 1983, which proposes that the design of educational content must follow a sequence from simple to complex.21”
In the citing paper
“The instructor organises and delivers the educational material to suit the learners’ needs and help achieve the desired learning outcomes.21”
In the citing paper
“Furthermore, Reigeluth and Stein proposed that learners’ motivation to accomplish a predetermined objective is crucial for acquiring knowledge and skills.21”
Citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 201–300 of 1,000
Özçelik, E., & Acartürk, C. (2011) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2011.05.019 · Cited by 122
“In other words, the participants might have been relatively motivated to study with this novel mobile technology (Keller, 1983), thus devoting more time on the instructional materials.”
BackgroundJust-in-time information presentation and the acquisition of complex cognitive skills
Kester, L., Kirschner, P. A., van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Baumer, A. (2001) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/s0747-5632(01)00011-5 · Cited by 119
Adaptive web‐based learning: accommodating individual differences through system's adaptation
Magoulas, G. D., Papanikolaou, K. A., & Grigoriadou, M. (2003) · British Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.1111/1467-8535.00347 · Cited by 117
Roth, W., McRobbie, C. J., Lucas, K. B., & Boutonn�, S. (1997) · Journal of Research in Science Teaching · doi:10.1002/(sici)1098-2736(199705)34:5 · Cited by 145
Hannafin, M. J., & Rieber, L. P. (1989) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/bf02298294 · Cited by 116
Re-exploring game-assisted learning research: The perspective of learning theoretical bases
Wu, W., Chiou, W., Kao, H.-Y., Hu, C.-H. A., & Huang, S.-H. (2012) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2012.05.003 · Cited by 116
Zheng, L., Li, X., Zhang, X., & Sun, W. (2019) · The Internet and Higher Education · doi:10.1016/j.iheduc.2019.03.002 · Cited by 117
Foster, A. N. (2008) · The Journal of Interactive Learning Research · Cited by 117
Kester, L., Kirschner, P. A., & van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (2005) · British Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1348/000709904x19254 · Cited by 115
“First, working on real-life tasks can be scaffolded by sequencing learning tasks during practice from simple to complex (Reigeluth, 1999; Reigeluth & Stein, 1983), or by using task formats that need less cognitive capacity, such as worked-out examples (Paas & van Merriënboer, 1994), or completion…”
Targeting Motivation—Adapting Flow Theory to Instructional Design
Chan, T. S., & Ahern, T. C. (1999) · Journal of Educational Computing Research · doi:10.2190/uj04-t5yb-yfxe-0bg2 · Cited by 114
Using Simulation-Based Training to Enhance Management Education
Salas, E., Wildman, J. L., & Piccolo, R. F. (2009) · Academy of Management Learning and Education · doi:10.5465/amle.8.4.zqr559 · Cited by 113
“Researchers have suggested that learner control is important for facilitating effective learning (e.g., Merrill, 1975; Morrison, Ross, & Baldwin, 1992; Reigeluth & Stein, 1983).”
BackgroundKırmızı, Ö. (2015) · Cited by 116
The impact of teacher immediacy on students' motivation: Is it the same for all students?
Frymier, A. B. (1993) · Communication Quarterly · doi:10.1080/01463379309369905 · Cited by 112
Challenges and issues in designing inquiry on the Web
Lim, B. (2004) · British Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.1111/j.0007-1013.2004.00419.x · Cited by 112
Chester, I. R. (2007) · International Journal of Technology and Design Education · doi:10.1007/s10798-006-9015-z · Cited by 132
Instructional Theory and Technology for the New Paradigm of Education
Reigeluth, C. M. (2016) · LA Referencia (Red Federada de Repositorios Institucionales de Publicaciones Científicas) · doi:10.4324/9781315760933.ch5 · Cited by 111
“…les muestre cómo hacerlo en diversas situaciones, y les dé la práctica con retroalimentación inmediata, una vez más en diversas situaciones (Merrill, 1983; Merrill, Reigeluth, y Faust, 1979), por lo que los estudiantes aprenden a generalizar o a transferir la habilidad para toda la gama de…”
BackgroundSelf-citationKao, G. Y., Tsai, C., Liu, C., & Yang, C.-H. (2016) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2016.04.013 · Cited by 111
Chang, Y.-S., Hu, K., Chiang, C.-W., & Lugmayr, A. R. (2019) · Sensors · doi:10.3390/s20010105 · Cited by 126
Nasser, F. (2004) · Journal of Statistics Education · doi:10.1080/10691898.2004.11910717 · Cited by 111
“Keller (1983) asserted that people work longer, harder and with more vigor and intensity when they are motivated than when they are not.”
BackgroundYoung, J. D. (1996) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/bf02300538 · Cited by 110
Design of collaborative learning environments
Lowyck, J., & Pöysä‐Tarhonen, J. (2001) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/s0747-5632(01)00017-6 · Cited by 110
Expertise reversal effects in writing-to-learn
Nückles, M., Hübner, S., Dümer, S., & Renkl, A. (2010) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-009-9106-9 · Cited by 107
elearnspace. Connectivism: A Learning Theory for the Digital Age
Siemens, G. (2012) · Cited by 109
Dinçer, S., & Doğanay, A. (2017) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2017.04.005 · Cited by 120
Designer Thinking: How Novices and Experts Think About Instructional Design
Perez, R. S., & Emery, C. D. (2008) · Performance Improvement Quarterly · doi:10.1111/j.1937-8327.1995.tb00688.x · Cited by 109
Implications of Connectionism for Thinking about Rules
Bereiter, C. (1991) · Educational Researcher · doi:10.3102/0013189x020003010 · Cited by 110
“6 In contrast to the Rousseauistic tradition is a family of in-2 structional theories in which rules, definitions, logical opera-s tions, explicit procedures, and the like are treated as central (Reigeluth, 1983).”
BackgroundCollege student perceptions of teaching and learning quality
Frick, T. W., Chadha, R., Watson, C., Wang, Y., & Green, P. (2007) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-007-9079-9 · Cited by 106
Determinants Influencing the Continuous Intention to Use Digital Technologies in Higher Education
Almaiah, M. A., Alfaisal, R., Salloum, S., Al-Otaibi, S. T., Sawafi, O. S. A., Al-Maroof, R., Lutfi, A., Alrawad, M., Mulhem, A. A. A., & Awad, A. B. (2022) · Electronics · doi:10.3390/electronics11182827 · Cited by 79
“90 (advanced research stages) [48,51,52], Table 4 also shows that 0.”
A Review of Strategies for Sequencing and Synthesizing Instruction
Patten, J. V., Chao, C.-I., & Reigeluth, C. M. (1986) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/00346543056004437 · Cited by 110
Self-citationHow theory and design-based research can mature PBL practice and research
Dolmans, D. H. J. M. (2019) · Advances in Health Sciences Education · doi:10.1007/s10459-019-09940-2 · Cited by 121
Effects of animation's speed of presentation on perceptual processing and learning
Meyer, K., Rasch, T., & Schnotz, W. (2009) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2009.02.016 · Cited by 105
Motivating students at a distance: The case of an international audience
Visser, L., Plomp, T., Amirault, R. J., et al. (2002) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/bf02504998 · Cited by 104
“The ARCS model (Keller, 1983) is useful for instructional design as it helps to understand the construct of motivation in four distinct categories (Attention, Relevance, Confidence, Satisfaction).”
BackgroundMethodInstructional design for effective and enjoyable computer-supported learning
Kirschner, P. A., & Gerjets, P. H. (2005) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2005.01.004 · Cited by 104
Designing Instructional Computing Systems for Meaningful Learning
Shuell, T. J. (1992) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-77512-3_3 · Cited by 106
Land, S. M., & Zimmerman, H. T. (2015) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-015-9369-6 · Cited by 107
Cheng, Y., & Yeh, H. (2008) · British Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8535.2008.00857.x · Cited by 112
The Emotional State of Technology Acceptance
Saadé, R. G., & Kira, D. (2006) · Informing Science and IT Education Conference · doi:10.28945/2945 · Cited by 102
Wen, Z. A., Lin, Z., Chen, R., & Andersen, E. (2019) · CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3290605.3300338 · Cited by 117
When Computer Technologies Meet the Learning Sciences
Bransford, J. D., Brophy, S. P., & Williams, S. M. (2000) · Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/s0193-3973(99)00051-9 · Cited by 102
Herl, H. E., O’Neil, H. F., Chung, G. K. W. K., et al. (1999) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/s0747-5632(99)00026-6 · Cited by 101
Dynamic task selection: Effects of feedback and learner control on efficiency and motivation
Corbalan, G., Kester, L., & van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (2008) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2008.07.002 · Cited by 109
Reflections on the state of educational technology research and development
Kozma, R. (2000) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/bf02313481 · Cited by 100
“The design of instructional systems was the major focus of this community; media and technology were not (Clark, At the same time, educational technology development was shaped by narrow client concerns and driven by esoteric design models (Reigeluth, 1983).”
BackgroundA conceptual framework for comparing instructional design models
Edmonds, G. S., Branch, R. M., & Mukherjee, P. (1994) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/bf02298055 · Cited by 99
“In the early years of communication research, communication theories and models were categorized and delineated in attempts to advance theory and model construction relative to concepts in communication ( Littlejohn, 1989 ).”
BackgroundSpector, J. M., Christensen, D. L., Sioutine, A. V., & McCormack, D. (2001) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/s0747-5632(01)00025-5 · Cited by 101
“An additional assumption prevalent in the educational research community is that instructional design is primarily a prescriptive enterprise forming a bridge between descriptive learning research and practical development of learning environments (Reigeluth, 1983).”
BackgroundMethodCriteria for successful blended learning
Mitchell, A., & Honore, S. (2007) · Industrial and Commercial Training · doi:10.1108/00197850710742243 · Cited by 97
Kanter, D. E. (2009) · Science Education · doi:10.1002/sce.20381 · Cited by 105
Daumiller, M. H., & Dresel, M. (2018) · The Journal of Experimental Education · doi:10.1080/00220973.2018.1448744 · Cited by 122
“Following Reigeluth and Stein (1983), they can be understood as strategy activators in the form of questions or hints that support learners in applying procedural knowledge.”
BackgroundMethodHao, K.-C., & Lee, L.-C. (2019) · Interactive Learning Environments · doi:10.1080/10494820.2019.1619590 · Cited by 112
Tüzün, H. (2007) · British Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8535.2007.00710.x · Cited by 95
On the Role of Concepts in Learning and Instructional Design
Jonassen, D. H. (2006) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-006-8253-9 · Cited by 95
The effect of uncertainty on learning in game-like environments
Özçelik, E., Çağıltay, N. E., & Ozcelik, N. S. (2013) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2013.02.009 · Cited by 95
Measuring Learners’ Motivation Level in Massive Open Online Courses
Huang, B., & Hew, K. F. (2015) · International Journal of Information and Education Technology · doi:10.7763/ijiet.2016.v6.788 · Cited by 94
Facilitating Flexible Problem Solving: A Cognitive Load Perspective
Kalyuga, S., Renkl, A., & PAAS, F. G. W. C. (2010) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-010-9132-9 · Cited by 92
A Perennial Dilemma in OB Education: Engaging the Traditional Student
Burke, L. A., & Moore, J. E. (2003) · Academy of Management Learning and Education · doi:10.5465/amle.2003.9324016 · Cited by 94
Self‐Regulation and Effort Investment
Boekaerts, M. (2007) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9780470147658.chpsy0409 · Cited by 104
Blended learning in education,training, and development
Duhaney, D. C. (2004) · Performance Improvement Journal · doi:10.1002/pfi.4140430810 · Cited by 93
Cybertext redux: using digital game-based learning to teach L2 vocabulary, reading, and culture
Neville, D. O., Shelton, B. E., & McInnis, B. J. (2009) · Computer Assisted Language Learning · doi:10.1080/09588220903345168 · Cited by 108
van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Krammer, H. P. M. (1987) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/bf00120253 · Cited by 98
Effect of a blended learning environment on student critical thinking and knowledge transformation
Jou, M., Lin, Y.-T., & Wu, D.-W. (2014) · Interactive Learning Environments · doi:10.1080/10494820.2014.961485 · Cited by 91
“…information-processing activity such as rehearsal, organization, or elaboration in order to clarify the relationships between pieces of information and compare newly acquired information with existing personal cognition (Gagne, 1985; Gagne, Briggs, & Wager, 1992; Reigeluth, 1983; Wittrock, 1979).”
BackgroundA matter of connection: The 4 Cs of learning in pre-service teacher education for sustainability
Brandt, J.-O., Barth, M., Merritt, E. G., & Hale, A. E. (2020) · Journal of Cleaner Production · doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.123749 · Cited by 100
TEACHING CHALLENGES IN INDONESIA: MOTIVATING STUDENTS AND TEACHERS’ CLASSROOM LANGUAGE
Yulia, Y. (2013) · Indonesian Journal of Applied Linguistics · doi:10.17509/ijal.v3i1.186 · Cited by 114
Diagnosing and acting on student affect: the tutor’s perspective
Porayska‐Pomsta, K., Mavrikis, M., & Pain, H. (2007) · User Modeling and User-Adapted Interaction · doi:10.1007/s11257-007-9041-x · Cited by 89
A design model for lifelong learning networks
Koper, R., Giesbers, B., van Rosmalen, P., Sloep, P., van Bruggen, J., Tattersall, C., Vogten, H., & Brouns, F. (2005) · Interactive Learning Environments · doi:10.1080/10494820500173656 · Cited by 92
Applying motivational analysis in a Web‐based course
ChanLin, L. (2009) · Innovations in Education and Teaching International · doi:10.1080/14703290802646123 · Cited by 90
Abdullah, J., Mohd-Isa, W.-N., & Samsudin, M. A. (2019) · Virtual Reality · doi:10.1007/s10055-019-00381-1 · Cited by 89
Bradford, G. R. (2011) · The Internet and Higher Education · doi:10.1016/j.iheduc.2011.05.001 · Cited by 99
Chen, C., & Bradshaw, A. C. (2007) · Journal of Research on Technology in Education · doi:10.1080/15391523.2007.10782487 · Cited by 89
Motivational strategies in a mobile inquiry-based language learning setting
Chang, C., Chang, C., Chang, C., et al. (2016) · System · doi:10.1016/j.system.2016.04.013 · Cited by 89
The new Component Design Theory: instructional design for courseware authoring
Merrill, M. (1987) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/bf00120003 · Cited by 89
“Most contemporary instructional design theory ( Reigeluth, 1983 ) and much traditional CAI is based on the "Branching Programed Instruction Model".”
Educational technology at the crossroads: New mindsets and new directions
Reigeluth, C. M. (1989) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/bf02299047 · Cited by 89
Self-citationEffects of Using an Instructional Game on Motivation and Performance
Klein, J. D., & Freitag, E. (1991) · The Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1080/00220671.1991.10886031 · Cited by 88
Klein, J. D., & Keller, J. M. (1990) · The Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1080/00220671.1990.10885945 · Cited by 88
Elaborating the elaboration theory
Reigeluth, C. M. (1992) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/bf02296844 · Cited by 87
Self-citationHuang, W. D., Johnson, T. E., & Han, S.-H. C. (2012) · The Internet and Higher Education · doi:10.1016/j.iheduc.2012.11.004 · Cited by 95
Barry, S., Murphy, K. A., & Drew, S. (2014) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2014.10.014 · Cited by 95
Is it Merely a Question of “What” to Prompt or Also “When” to Prompt?
Thillmann, H., Künsting, J., Wirth, J., & Leutner, D. (2009) · Zeitschrift für Pädagogische Psychologie · doi:10.1024/1010-0652.23.2.105 · Cited by 104
Just-in-time information presentation: Improving learning a troubleshooting skill
Kester, L., Kirschner, P. A., & van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (2006) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2005.04.002 · Cited by 86
“E-mail address: liesbeth.kester@ou.nl (L. Kester).”
BackgroundUsability in the Context of e-Learning
Zaharias, P. (2009) · International Journal of Technology and Human Interaction · doi:10.4018/jthi.2009062503 · Cited by 84
Kicken, W., Brand‐Gruwel, S., & van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (2008) · Journal of Vocational Education and Training · doi:10.1080/13636820802305561 · Cited by 92
The return of behaviourist epistemology: A review of learning outcomes studies
Murtonen, M., Gruber, H. G., & Lehtinen, E. (2017) · Educational Research Review · doi:10.1016/j.edurev.2017.08.001 · Cited by 123
Design patterns for learning games
Kelle, S., Klemke, R., & Specht, M. M. (2011) · International Journal of Technology Enhanced Learning · doi:10.1504/ijtel.2011.045452 · Cited by 84
Audio–Visual Emotion-Aware Cloud Gaming Framework
Hossain, M. S., Muhammad, G., Song, B., Hassan, M. M., Alelaiwi, A. A., & Alamri, A. M. (2015) · IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems for Video Technology · doi:10.1109/tcsvt.2015.2444731 · Cited by 85
Hypertext as instructional design
Jonassen, D. H. (1991) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/bf02298109 · Cited by 85
A Roadmap for Education Technology
Woolf, B. P. (2010) · HAL · Cited by 98
Competencies for learning design: A review of the literature and a proposed framework
MacLean, P., & Scott, B. C. (2010) · British Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8535.2010.01090.x · Cited by 84
Shaw, R.-S. (2012) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2012.11.001 · Cited by 87
The use of public learning diaries in blended learning
Nückles, M., Schwonke, R., Berthold, K., & Renkl, A. (2004) · Journal of Educational Television · doi:10.1080/1358165042000186271 · Cited by 99
Current progress and future directions for research in instructional technology
Clark, R. E. (1989) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/bf02299046 · Cited by 81
Shared and personal learning spaces: Challenges for pedagogical design
Häkkinen, P., & Hämäläinen, R. (2011) · The Internet and Higher Education · doi:10.1016/j.iheduc.2011.09.001 · Cited by 83
How Do Instructional-Design Practitioners Make Instructional-Strategy Decisions?
Christensen, T. K., & Osguthorpe, R. T. (2008) · Performance Improvement Quarterly · doi:10.1111/j.1937-8327.2004.tb00313.x · Cited by 98
Trends in Research on Teaching and Learning in Schools: Didactics Meets Classroom Studies
Klette, K. (2007) · European Educational Research Journal · doi:10.2304/eerj.2007.6.2.147 · Cited by 82
“Like Reigeluth (1983), later surveys of research of studies in teaching and learning notice a split between research on teaching and research on learning (the ‘missing paradigm problem’) (Shulman, 1986; Ball et al, 2001).”
BackgroundBurke, L. A., & James, K. E. (2008) · Business Communication Quarterly · doi:10.1177/1080569908317151 · Cited by 82
“Support for our contention also stems from literature linking curiosity and attention as integral variables affecting learner motivation (Keller, 1983).”
Ertmer, P. A., Newby, T. J., Liu, W., Tomory, A., Yu, J. H., & Lee, Y. M. (2011) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-011-9187-4 · Cited by 82
Freiermuth, M. R., & Huang, H. (2012) · Language Teaching Research · doi:10.1177/1362168811423341 · Cited by 92
Cognitive effects of an authentic computer-supported, problem-based learning environment
Arts, J. A. R., Gijselaers, W., & Segers, M. S. R. (2002) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1023/a:1020532128625 · Cited by 85
Yu, F., & Liu, Y. (2009) · British Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8535.2008.00905.x · Cited by 81
“…that engaging in the process of elaboration (eg, providing an elaborated explanation to others) helps cognitive structuring and/or reconstruction (Reigeluth, 1983; Wittrock, 1978) and that groups can be effective in drawing out, confronting and discussing deep-held presumptions and miscalculated…”
BackgroundAndrini, V. S. (2016) · Journals & Books Hosting (International Knowledge Sharing Platform) · Cited by 81
Martin, D. A., Conlon, E., & Bowe, B. W. (2021) · Australasian journal of engineering education · doi:10.1080/22054952.2021.1914297 · Cited by 81
Towards Systems That Care: A Conceptual Framework based on Motivation, Metacognition and Affect
du Boulay, B., Avramides, K., Luckin, R., Martínez-Mirón, E. A., Rebolledo‐Mendez, G., & Carr, A. (2010) · International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education · doi:10.3233/jai-2010-0007 · Cited by 83
“Many of the components of motivation are not stable, but are likely to vary within a session (Keller, 1983; Malone & Lepper, 1987).”
BackgroundInfluentialUtilizing Internet technologies to support learning: an empirical analysis
Parikh, M. A., & Verma, S. (2002) · International Journal of Information Management · doi:10.1016/s0268-4012(01)00038-x · Cited by 81
Metadata
- Authors
- Reigeluth, C. M.
- Corresponding author
- Charles M. Reigeluth
- ORCID
- Charles M. Reigeluth
- Venue
- Routledge eBooks
- Publisher
- Routledge
- Published
- 1983-11-01
- OpenAlex
- W1493910332
- Cited by
- 2,192
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 12 · 2025: 20 · 2024: 45 · 2023: 49 · 2022: 49 · 2021: 61 · 2020: 69 · 2019: 75 · 2018: 91 · 2017: 56 · 2016: 68 · 2015: 94 · 2014: 80 · 2013: 95 · 2012: 86
- FWCI
- 14.72
- Type
- book
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Routledge eBooks (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Social Sciences › Education › Educational Assessment and Pedagogy
- Keywords
- instructional design theory, instructional design model, teaching effectiveness, history of instructional design
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review