The Taxonomy of Metacognition
Abstract
Metacognition is a complex construct which is fundamental to learning. Its complex, fuzzy and multifaceted nature has often led to its colloquial application in research, resulting in studies that fail to identify its theoretical foundation or elements. In response to this, the research community continues to call for a comprehensive understanding of the construct of metacognition. This book is a response to this call for clarity. Pina Tarricone provides a theoretical study of the construct of metacognition in terms of psychological theory. The first part of the book analyses the relationship between reflection and metacognition, and the second part goes on to analyse the construct of metamemory as the foundation of metacognition. The third and final part of the book analyses the construct of metacognition to present the final conceptual framework of metacognition and the taxonomy of metacognition. This framework builds a picture and a nexus of the construct through visual links to the related concepts that contribute to what is known as metacognition. The Taxonomy of Metacognition provides a comprehensive representation and categorisation of all of the terms, concepts, categories, supercategories, subcategories and elements of metacognition. It clarifies the construct so that researchers and teachers can develop a better understanding of it. This important and broad ranging contribution can be applied to many related areas, by researchers, psychologists, teachers and any pro…
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Explanations that map each aspect of an output to aspects of the prompt and compare this to examples of effective prompts can help users disentangle issues with their prompt from those stemming from model performance, thereby supporting confidence adjustment for prompting ability.
“For example, explanations that map each aspect of an output to aspects of the prompt (e.g., using attention visualization [179]), and compare this to examples of effective prompts [25,85], can help users disentangle issues with their prompt from those stemming from model performance, thereby supporting confidence adjustment for prompting ability.”
From The Metacognitive Demands and Opportunities of Generative AI (2024) · cites this paper as [179]
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The Metacognitive Demands and Opportunities of Generative AI
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“From education [106] to management [90], health-care [36], and even sports [111], many research disciplines have carved out their own approach to metacognition, producing multiple inconsistent terminologies and frameworks (for reviews see [131, 181]).”
BackgroundInfluentialToward the development of a metacognition construct for communities of inquiry
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“…to current theoretical models of SRL, methodological approaches to studying SRL, and analyses of SRL processes underlying self-regulation during complex learning (Tarricone, 2011; Veenman, 2011; Greene et al., 2015; Järvelä and Bannert, 2019; Winne, 2019; Azevedo, 2020; Lajoie et al., in press).”
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“Applied to endurance exercise, metacognitive processes may include planning, self-instruction, self-monitoring, self-evaluation, relaxation, and strategy (e.g. Augustyn & Rosenbaum, 2005; Huber, 1997; Martini & Shore, 2008; Tarricone, 2011).”
BackgroundReflections on the field of metacognition: issues, challenges, and opportunities
Azevedo, R. (2020) · Metacognition and Learning · doi:10.1007/s11409-020-09231-x · Cited by 137 · see citing works
“One of the best examples of this distinction is the work of Tarricone (2011) where the most comprehensive conceptual framework of metacognition is provided and clearly distinguishes between metacognitive knowledge and skills.”
BackgroundMetacognition, Self-Reflection and Recovery In Schizophrenia
Lysaker, P. H., Vohs, J. L., Ballard, R., Fogley, R., Salvatore, G., Popolo, R., & Dimaggio, G. (2013) · Future Neurology · doi:10.2217/fnl.12.78 · Cited by 134 · see citing works
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“Indeed, research since then has used the term metacognition to understand how persons plan and monitor their behavior as well as evaluate possible responses to the challenges they face (Tarricone, 2011).”
BackgroundThinking and Action: A Cognitive Perspective on Self-Regulation during Endurance Performance
Brick, N. E., MacIntyre, T. E., & Campbell, M. J. (2016) · Frontiers in Physiology · doi:10.3389/fphys.2016.00159 · Cited by 131 · see citing works
“It is also important to note that although self-regulation and metacognition have distinct origins in psychology, metacognition is considered an essential component of effective self-regulation (Dinsmore et al., 2008; Efklides, 2008; Tarricone, 2011).”
Automatic assessment of text-based responses in post-secondary education: A systematic review
Gao, R., Merzdorf, H. E., Anwar, S., Hipwell, M. C., & Srinivasa, A. R. (2024) · Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.caeai.2024.100206 · Cited by 137 · see citing works
A Journey into the Metacognitive Learning Strategies
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“Metacognitive regulation includes planning, monitoring, and evaluation and could be considered as “self-management” of cognition involving reflective “self-appraisal” which supports awareness and has been labeled executive control [6].”
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“Metacognition, similar to personal epistemology, is a complex construct, which has received multiple formulations (e.g., Baker, 1994; Brown, 1987; Efklides, 2008; Flavell, 1979; Tarricone, 2011; Veenman et al., 2006).”
BackgroundMetacognitive Theories Revisited
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“Overlapping concepts include reflection, attribution, perspective taking, and theory of mind (Miller 2012; Tarricone 2011).”
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“Tarricone (2011) had conducted a comprehensive “taxonomy of metacognition” which is primarily focused upon on the wide-scale research in the educational research domain.”
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“Declarative metacognitive knowledge can further be subdivided into different knowledge areas, for example, between knowledge of self and others, and knowledge of task and context (Tarricone, 2011).”
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“, 2014), and on relevant 10 accounts from the metacognition literature (e.g., Efklides, 2006; Tarricone, 2011).”
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“At its highest level, the conceptualization of metacognition is frequently broken into two discernible processes – a monitoring process and a control process (Flavell, 1979) – although many more specific processes within the concept of metacognition can be distinguished (Tarricone, 2011).”
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A conceptual proposal and operational definitions of the cognitive processes of complex thinking
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“For our model we have considered the definition proposed by Tarricone (2011) in her Taxonomy of Metacognition because it is the one that best fits the theoretical construct proposed for complex thinking, considering that the same author links her proposal of metacognition with the notion of complex…”
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“Regulation of cognition consists of three essential components: planning, monitoring, and evaluating (Schraw, 1998; Tarricone, 2011; Veenman et al., 2006).”
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“Tarricone (2011) explained that metacognitive are the information, its processes, monitoring, and its control for obtaining novel learning.”
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“Conversely, others propose that reflection promotes metacognition and, accordingly, meta-cognitive capacity is developed by promoting reflection (Gonullu & Artar, 2014; Tarricone, 2011).”
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“17–19 Focusing on psychopathology, Wells 20 was among the first to suggest that metacognitive beliefs people have about their cognitions affect how persons respond to distress and psychosocial challenges leading to emotional disorders (ie, anxiety, depression).”
Modeling metacognition in design thinking and design making
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“There are also opportunities for the author to reflect on their knowledge of self-systems including self-efficacy, self-concept, self-esteem and self-appraisal (Tarricone 2011).”
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“Reflection is foundational to self-regulated learning, (Zimmerman, 1998a, 1998b, 2002), metacognition (Flavel, 1979; Pintrich, 2002; Tarricone, 2011), and deep learning (Van Meter et al.”
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“Goal-setting, planning, and strategy-adjustment during a deliberate problem-solving situation, which equips people for their personal striving, are considered metacognitive regulatory skills (Brown, 1987; Tarricone, 2011) and involve both monitoring and control functions of the brain.”
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“Taxonomies that are commonly, but not necessarily, hierarchical in structure have been used in areas such as biology (Simpson, 1961), cognitive science (Tarricone, 2011; Rasmussen et al., 1990), education (Bloom and Krathwohl, 1956; Gagné and Briggs, 1974) and engineering (Plants et al.”
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“Other efforts have sought to distinguish different kinds of metacognition from one another on the basis of the goal of their behaviors, for example, whether they involve planning, self-monitoring, and error detection and knowledge about strategies for responding to challenges (Tarricone, 2011).”
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The relevance and efficacy of metacognition for instructional design in the domain of mathematics
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Synthetic metacognition as a link between brain and behavior in schizophrenia
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“Children’s rote repetition of what they read or just did appears to be generally ineffective in improving performance, whereas stating aloud their metacognitive reflections (e.g., commenting on why they did something) may enhance their performance (Bunce, Flens, & Neiles, 2010; Tarricone, 2011).”
Radmehr, F., & Drake, M. (2018) · International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology · doi:10.1080/0020739x.2018.1549336 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
“[14,19,54–57]), which has led to the concept and structure of metacognition becoming fuzzy [57] as different models and meanings increase.”
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“As Tarricone (2011) states, metacognitive experiences are conscious cognitive and affective experiences, including “awareness, unexpected awareness, thoughts, intuitions, perceptions, feelings and selfjudgements of oneself as a cognisor during problem-solving and task completion” (p. 130).”
BackgroundTeaching metacognition: Helping engineering students take ownership of their own learning
Cunningham, P. J., Matusovich, H., Hunter, D. A. N., & McCord, R. E. (2015) · IEEE Frontiers in Education Conference (FIE) · doi:10.1109/fie.2015.7344080 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
“The elements of metacognitive knowledge and regulation are not hierarchical, rather they interact and reinforce each other to a high degree [3, 9].”
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“Since metacognition is fundamental to the general learning process (Tarricone, 2011), it is considered as one of the most potent predictors of successful language learning (Teng et al.”
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Norman, E. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01537 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
“Metacognitive beliefs (i.e., a form of metacognitive knowledge) may address a person’s evaluation of their own abilities and selfworth (Tarricone, 2011).”
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“However, there is fuzziness in the concept and structure of metacognition [14,24] due to different models and meanings being presented in the literature, and it is not always easy to distinguish between cognition and metacognition [22].”
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“This teacher-directed and student-practiced metacognitive activity incorporated self-evaluations of acquisition, comprehension, and reasoning on, for instance, concepts in science (Bensley and Spero 2014; Halpern 1998; Tarricone 2011).”
Game-Based Learning Analytics for Supporting Adolescents’ Reflection
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“Further, the importance of developing intentional and conscious reflection is critical for developing higher-order thinking skills and plays a role in learning (Azevedo et al., 2018; Alzaid & Hsiao, 2018; Izu & Alexander, 2018; Luo & Baaki, 2019; Patel et al., 2019; Tarricone, 2011; Dewey, 1923).”
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Metacognition and Self-Regulated Learning (SRL) in Second/Foreign Language Teaching
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“Self-regulated learning and metacognition are both generally defined by their component parts (Sperling, Howard, Staley & DuBois, 2004; Tarricone, 2011).”
BackgroundMetacognition in TESOL : Theory and Practice
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“Although the metacognitive concept is over 40 years old, researchers keep using different definitions for this construct (Baten et al. 2017; Brown 1987; Gascoine et al. 2017; Perfect and Schwartz 2002; Tarricone 2011).”
Sella, E., Carbone, E., Vincenzi, M., Toffalini, E., & Borella, E. (2022) · Aging & Mental Health · doi:10.1080/13607863.2022.2122931 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
“Metacognitive processes, and the ones associated with memory (so called metamemory), mainly concern distinct but interdependent components (see Tarricone, 2011): (a) metacognitive/metamemory knowledge of how cognitive abilities and memory function as well as on tasks, strategies, and the nature of…”
BackgroundA Qualitative Analysis of Metacognition in Simulation
Josephsen, J. (2017) · Journal of Nursing Education · doi:10.3928/01484834-20171020-07 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Pedagogic transformation, student-directed design and computational thinking
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“Additionally, collaborative problem-solving promotes communication involving creative and interpretive meaning-making, analysis, and re fl ective judgment (Tarricone, 2011).”
BackgroundMetacognitive Feelings as a Source of Information for the Creative Process: A Conceptual Exploration
Puente‐Díaz, R. (2023) · Journal of Intelligence · doi:10.3390/jintelligence11030049 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
“…(e.g., Ackerman and Thompson 2017), decision-making (e.g., Evans 2020; Stanovich 2011), social psychology (e.g., Schwarz 2018), educational psychology (Moshman 2015; Preiss 2022; Tarricone 2011), and creativity (Beghetto and Madison 2022; Kaufman and Beghetto 2013; Karwowski et al. 2020).”
BackgroundLearning of Mathematics: A Metacognitive Experiences Perspective
Tay, L. Y., Chan, M. C. Y., Chong, S. K., Tan, J. Y., & Aiyoob, T. B. (2023) · International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education · doi:10.1007/s10763-023-10385-8 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
“As Tarricone (2011) explains, metacognitive experiences are ignited in problem-solving situations, “[t]hey interact with metacognitive knowledge and evolve from and inform monitoring and control processes and in doing so support self-regulation” (p. 173).”
InfluentialScaffolding to Promote Critical Thinking and Learner Autonomy Among Pre-Service Education Students
Weinstein, S., & Preiss, D. (2017) · Journal of Education and Training · doi:10.5296/jet.v4i1.9871 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
“This second step involved metacognition, or thinking about thinking (Tarricone, 2011), as the students were asked to think about how to describe their findings in columns A and B in abstract terms.”
BackgroundTurner, M. J., Wood, A. G., Boatwright, D., Chadha, N. J., Jones, J. K., & Bennett, R. (2021) · Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1080/10503307.2020.1871524 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“M viewpoint is more able to exercise some volition over their emotions by modifying their cognitions (Tarricone, 2011); since not grasping a C –”
Garrison, D. R., & Akyol, Z. (2015) · Palgrave Macmillan UK eBooks · doi:10.1057/9781137469939_3 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Metacognitive thinking skills among talented science education students
Al-Gaseem, M. M., Bakkar, B. S., & Al–Zoubi, S. M. (2020) · Journal for the Education of Gifted Young Scientists · doi:10.17478/jegys.707205 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“This form of self-reflection will generate new knowledge and new learning experiences (Tarricone, 2011).”
BackgroundMaximising medicine through aphorisms
Levine, D., & Bleakley, A. (2012) · Medical Education · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2923.2011.04141.x · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Akman, Ö., & Alagöz, B. (2018) · Universal Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.13189/ujer.2018.060102 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
“time to plan and teach lessons, teachers have the freedom to decide what to and how to teach (11, 83).”
BackgroundRobson, S. (2016) · Early Years Journal of International Research and Development · doi:10.1080/09575146.2015.1129315 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“…between self-regulation and metacognition, although many writers see self-regulation as the ‘superconstruct’ (Schneider 2010, 57), comprising regulation of cognition, motivation and emotion, and metacognition as a ‘key subprocess’ (Tarricone 2011, 168), focused more explicitly on cognition.”
BackgroundMcCord, R. E., & Matusovich, H. (2019) · Journal of Engineering Education · doi:10.1002/jee.20291 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
“Importantly, the resulting observational protocol and coding strategy are aligned with widely accepted taxonomic structures of metacognition (Tarricone, 2011), consistent with similar work in the contexts of early education (Whitebread et al.”
BackgroundResultExploring Students’ Metacognitive Knowledge: The Case of Integral Calculus
Radmehr, F., & Drake, M. (2020) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci10030055 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Sun, Q., Zhang, L. J., & Carter, S. (2024) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2024.102540 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Stephanou, G., & Karamountzos, D. (2020) · Psychology and Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.12691/rpbs-8-1-1 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Fen Bilgisi Öğretmen Adaylarının Eleştirel Düşünme Eğilimleri: İstanbul Üniversitesi Örneği
Koç, İ., & Kuvaç, M. (2015) · Turkish Journal of Education · doi:10.19128/turje.181081 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Balancing One’s Own Time Perspective from Aerial View: Metacognitive Processes in Temporal Framing
Stolarski, M., & Witowska, J. (2017) · Palgrave Macmillan UK eBooks · doi:10.1057/978-1-137-60191-9_6 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
EFL learners’ metacognitive development in flipped learning: a comparative study
Shih, H.-C. J., & Huang, S. C. (2020) · Interactive Learning Environments · doi:10.1080/10494820.2020.1728343 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
“906), metacognition can be conceptualized as including knowledge of cognition and regulation of cognition (Tarricone, 2011).”
BackgroundInchausti, F., Sierra, J. O., García‐Poveda, N. V., & Ballesteros-Prados, A. (2016) · Adicciones · doi:10.20882/adicciones.719 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Using a “Think Aloud” protocol to understand meta-attention in club-level golfers
Oliver, A., McCarthy, P. J., & Burns, L. (2020) · International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology · doi:10.1080/1612197x.2020.1766536 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
“It is defined as a tripartite construct that contains an individual’s insight, control and monitoring of their cognitions (Flavell, 1979; Tarricone, 2011), and metacognition is vital for successful self-regulation (Tarricone, 2011).”
BackgroundBakar, M. A. A., & Ismail, N. B. (2020) · International Journal of Instruction · doi:10.29333/iji.2020.13343a · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Lysaker, P. H., Владимирович, Ч. Н., Moiseeva, T., Sozinova, M. V., Dmitryeva, N., Alyoshin, V., Faith, L. A., Karpenko, O., & Kostyuk, G. P. (2020) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2020.113177 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Knowledge surveys: Supporting students along pathways to self-directed learning with self-assessment
Wirth, K. R., Nuhfer, E. B., Watson, R. M., Fleisher, S. C., & Bailey, R. (2021) · NWU self-directed learning series · doi:10.4102/aosis.2021.bk279.06 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Developing transdisciplinarity in first‐year engineering
Tembrevilla, G., Nesbit, S., Ellis, N., & Ostafichuk, P. (2022) · Journal of Engineering Education · doi:10.1002/jee.20497 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
“It also facilitates or is facilitated by, other thinking behaviors, including the ability to monitor and control thinking while studying—that is, self-regulated learning (Winne, 2017; Winne & Hadwin, 1998) and critical reflection (Tarricone, 2011)—which is related to transdisciplinarity (Fook et al.”
BackgroundRadmehr, F., & Drake, M. (2018) · Teaching Mathematics and its Applications An International Journal of the IMA · doi:10.1093/teamat/hry006 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Willison, J., Draper, C., Fornarino, L., Li, M., Sabri, T., Shi, Y., & Zhao, X. (2023) · Studies in Science Education · doi:10.1080/03057267.2023.2207147 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
“For example, Tarricone (2011) provided ‘the most comprehensive conceptual framework of metacognition . . . [which] clearly distinguishes between metacognitive knowledge and skills’ (Azevedo, 2020, p. 92), however, the article’s diagrams and tables do not portray the relationship between them.”
Sun, Q., & Zhang, L. J. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.986301 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
“…and strategies, metacognitive experiences are what the individual goes through during a cognitive endeavor, including cognitive and affective experiences that are online metacognitive knowledge, ideas and beliefs, feelings, goals, and self-judgments (Flavell, 1979; Efklides, 2001; Tarricone, 2011).”
BackgroundInfluentialLysaker, P. H., & Lysaker, J. T. (2017) · Philosophy, psychiatry & psychology · doi:10.1353/ppp.2017.0021 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
“Since that time, it has been applied to numerous fields, including attachment, psychopathology, human development, and cognitive psychology (Bacon et al, 2011; Dinsmore et al., 2008; Main, 1991; Tarricone, 2011) and taken on a range of meanings, including broader processes in which information is integrated in more or…”
BackgroundImagining imagination: towards cognitive and metacognitive models
Burns, H. (2022) · Pedagogy Culture and Society · doi:10.1080/14681366.2022.2059547 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
“Previous authors have described multiple definitions of metacognition (e.g., Tarricone 2011).”
BackgroundSun, Q., Pan, H., & Zhan, J. (2023) · System · doi:10.1016/j.system.2023.103100 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
- Authors
- Tarricone, P.
- Affiliations
- Edith Cowan University (AU)
- Corresponding author
- Tarricone, Pina
- ORCID
- Tarricone, Pina
- Venue
- Psychology Press eBooks
- Publisher
- Psychology Press
- Published
- 2011-02-28
- OpenAlex
- W13373333
- Semantic Scholar
- b1f9ffc006ff2eaca7dcba05273d39154f2a16a6
- Cited by
- 371
- References
- 16
- Citations by year
- 2026: 13 · 2025: 26 · 2024: 33 · 2023: 35 · 2022: 30 · 2021: 35 · 2020: 33 · 2019: 24 · 2018: 33 · 2017: 27 · 2016: 22 · 2015: 22 · 2014: 22 · 2013: 9 · 2012: 6
- FWCI
- 11.47
- Type
- book
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychology Press eBooks (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Educational Strategies and Epistemologies
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Keywords
- metacognition, metamemory, reflection, conceptual framework, construct definition, learning process
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