Prothrombin Kringle-2: a potential inflammatory pathogen in the parkinsonian dopaminergic system
Open accessAbstract
Although accumulating evidence suggests that microglia-mediated neuroinflammation may be crucial for the initiation and progression of Parkinson's disease (PD), and that the control of neuroinflammation may be a useful strategy for preventing the degeneration of nigrostriatal dopaminergic (DA) projections in the adult brain, it is still unclear what kinds of endogenous biomolecules initiate microglial activation, consequently resulting in neurodegeneration. Recently, we reported that the increase in the levels of prothrombin kringle-2 (pKr-2), which is a domain of prothrombin that is generated by active thrombin, can lead to disruption of the nigrostriatal DA projection. This disruption is mediated by neurotoxic inflammatory events via the induction of microglial Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) in vivo , thereby resulting in less neurotoxicity in TLR4-deficient mice. Moreover, inhibition of microglial activation following minocycline treatment, which has anti-inflammatory activity, protects DA neurons from pKr-2-induced neurotoxicity in the substantia nigra (SN) in vivo. We also found that the levels of pKr-2 and microglial TLR4 were significantly increased in the SN of PD patients compared to those of age-matched controls. These observations suggest that there may be a correlation between pKr-2 and microglial TLR4 in the initiation and progression of PD, and that inhibition of pKr-2-induced microglial activation may be protective against the degeneration of the nigrostriatal DA system in vivo. To describe the significance of pKr-2 overexpression, which may have a role in the pathogenesis of PD, we have reviewed the mechanisms of pKr-2-induced microglial activation, which results in neurodegeneration in the SN of the adult brain.
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In PD patients, pKr-2 expression is significantly increased and co-localized in activated microglia in the substantia nigra, leading to disruption of nigrostriatal DA projection.
“In addition, in PD patient's pKr-2 expression is significantly increased and co-localized in activated microglial in the substantia nigra, leading to disruption of the nigrostriatal DA projection.”
From The role of microglia in retinal neurodegeneration: Alzheimer’s disease, parkinson, and glaucoma. (2017) · cites this paper as Leem et al., 2016
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- Authors
- Leem, E., Jeong, K. H., Won, S.-Y., Shin, W.-H., & Kim, S. R.
- Affiliations
- Kyungpook National University (KR)
- Chungbuk National University (KR)
- Korea Institute of Toxicology (KR)
- Corresponding author
- Shin, Won-Ho
- Kim, Sang Ryong
- Venue
- Experimental Neurobiology
- Published
- 2016-08-31
- Volume
- 25
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 147-155
- ISSN
- 1226-2560 (ISSN-L)
- 2093-8144
- PMC
- PMC4999420
- OpenAlex
- W2513569294
- Cited by
- 16
- References
- 72
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1 · 2025: 1 · 2024: 1 · 2023: 2 · 2022: 1 · 2021: 1 · 2020: 3 · 2019: 1 · 2018: 2 · 2017: 3
- FWCI
- 0.18
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Licence
- Locations
- Experimental Neurobiology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Research Foundation of Korea (2014R1A1A2056508)
- Ministry of Health and Welfare (HI15C1928)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Neurology › Neuroinflammation and Neurodegeneration Mechanisms
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Neurology › Parkinson's Disease Mechanisms and Treatments
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Nuclear Receptors and Signaling
- Keywords
- Parkinson's disease, microglial activation, neuroinflammation, TLR4, nigrostriatal pathway, substantia nigra, minocycline, neurodegeneration, thrombin, neuroprotection
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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