Sleep Restriction Impairs Vocabulary Learning when Adolescents Cram for Exams: The Need for Sleep Study
Open accessAbstract
The aim of this study was to examine the interaction of study spacing and time in bed (TIB) for sleep on vocabulary learning in adolescents. In the Need for Sleep Study, 56 adolescents aged 15-19 years were randomly assigned to a week of either 5 h or 9 h of TIB for sleep each night. Recall performance was examined 0 h, 24 h, and 120 h after all items were studied. Recall of massed items was impaired by a greater amount in adolescents exposed to sleep restriction. In contrast, cued recall performance on spaced items was similar between sleep groups.
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Claims the paper makes
10 of 32 cited sources checked · 8 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured
- Premisecitation
Sleep restriction resulted in a greater number of attentional failures on a visual reaction time test.
“In the same group of students, we found that exposure to sleep restriction resulted in a greater number of attentional failures on a visual reaction time test.22”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked- cites [22] Lo, 2016, Cognitive performance, sleepiness, and mood in partially sleep deprived adolescents: the Need for Sleep Study, Sleep source
- Premisecitation
Retention is better if learning is followed by sleep rather than wakefulness.
“demonstrating that retention is better if followed by sleep rather than wakefulness.7,18”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 2 sources checked - Premisecitation
In a meta-analysis of spaced learning on verbal memory tasks, for retention intervals ranging from a day to a month, the spacing effect was greatest when the interval between study sessions was about a day.
“In a meta-analysis of spaced learning on verbal memory tasks, it was shown that for retention intervals ranging from a day to a month, the spacing effect was greatest when the interval between study sessions was about a day.12”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked- cites [12] Cepeda, 2006, Distributed practice in verbal recall tasks: a review and quantitative synthesis, Psychol Bull source
- Study design and conductcitation
Both sleep groups slept a similar amount at baseline.
“As reported elsewhere, both sleep groups slept a similar amount at baseline”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim2 of 2 sources checked - Study design and conductcitation
The 5-h time-in-bed condition was associated with a large daily reduction in total sleep time relative to the 9-h time-in-bed condition.
“whereas the 5-h TIB condition was associated with a large daily reduction in total sleep time relative to the 9-h TIB condition.22,31”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim2 of 2 sources checked
- Findingown data
The magnitude of the spacing effect, defined as the difference in test scores on spaced versus massed items, was about 2-fold greater in adolescents exposed to sleep restriction.
“The magnitude of the spacing effect, defined as the difference in test scores for each participant on spaced items versus massed items, was about 2-fold greater in individuals exposed to sleep restriction (Figure 3B).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
There was a significant interaction between study spacing and time in bed for sleep on cued recall during the retention phase.
“There was a significant interaction between study spacing and TIB for sleep (Table 2)”
- Also stated in: § RESULTS · plain
“there was a significant interaction between study spacing and TIB (LR χ 2 = 8.40, P < 0.01)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Also stated in: § RESULTS · plain
- Findingown data
The difference in test scores between sleep groups did not reach statistical significance for massed items presented during the fourth study session.
“Although the difference in test scores between sleep groups did not reach statistical significance for massed items presented during the fourth study session (Set 4: Tukey test, P = 0.15)”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Recall of the first set of massed items was similar for the 9-h and 5-h time-in-bed groups.
“recall of the first set of massed items was similar for the 9h TIB and 5h TIB groups (Tukey test, P > 0.99)”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
There was a significant interaction between study spacing and test session, whereby recall performance on massed items improved after the review session and reached a similar level as for spaced items.
“Additionally, there was a significant interaction between study spacing and test session (Table 2), whereby recall performance on massed items improved after the review session, reaching a similar level as for spaced items (Tukey test, P = 0.51) (Figure 2C).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
In the retention phase, there was a significant interaction between massed-item Set and time in bed.
“There was a significant interaction between Set and TIB (LR χ 2 = 10.71,P = 0.013, η 2 = 0.014)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The overall time-course of recall performance for fourth-session massed items was comparable to massed items presented on the second and third study sessions.
“the overall time-course of recall performance was comparable to massed items presented on the second and third study sessions (Figure 4).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
After a one-time review session at 120 h, recall performance for massed items remained worse in the 5-h time-in-bed group than in the 9-h time-in-bed group.
“After a one-time review session in which subjects were given an opportunity to study all 40 flashcards one more time, there remained a significant interaction between study spacing and TIB in which recall performance for massed items was worse in individuals exposed to 5 h of TIB versus 9 h of TIB (Tukey test, P < 0.01)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
There was a main effect of Session in which participants showed a drop in test scores from immediate recall to 24 h after the respective massed items were studied.
“There was a main effect of Session (LR χ 2 = 41.1,P < 0.0001, η 2 = 0.081) in which participants showed a drop in test scores from immediate recall to 24 h after the respective massed items were studied”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Participants who underwent sleep restriction had lower test scores for massed items presented on the second and third study sessions.
“whereas participants who underwent sleep restriction had lower test scores for massed items that were presented on the second and third study sessions (Set 2: Tukey test, P < 0.01 and Set 3: P < 0.001).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
After the one-time review session at 120 h, test scores for spaced items were similar between the 5-h and 9-h time-in-bed groups.
“while test scores were similar between sleep groups for spaced items (Tukey test, P = 0.99).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
In adolescents aged 15-19 exposed to a week of 5 h versus 9 h time in bed for sleep, cued recall of massed GRE-type word pairs was poorer in the sleep-restriction group across the retention intervals examined.
“For all retention intervals examined, recall of massed items was impaired by a greater amount in adolescents exposed to sleep restriction.”
- Also stated in: § RESULTS · plain
“test performance on massed items was poorer in individuals who underwent sleep restriction (Tukey test, P < 0.001)”
- Also stated in: § DISCUSSION · plain
“daily exposure to partial sleep deprivation impaired vocabulary learning when studied word pairs were massed rather than spaced across consecutive days.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Also stated in: § RESULTS · plain
- Findingown data
In the same adolescents, cued recall performance on spaced GRE-type word pairs was similar between the 5-h and 9-h time-in-bed sleep groups across the retention intervals examined.
“In contrast, cued recall performance on spaced items was similar between sleep groups.”
- Also stated in: § RESULTS · plain
“while test performance on spaced items was similar between sleep groups (Tukey test, P = 0.80; Figure 2B).”
- Also stated in: § DISCUSSION · plain
“cued recall performance was similar in students exposed to 9 h of TIB versus 5 h of TIB.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Also stated in: § RESULTS · plain
- Findingown data
By the end of the fourth study session, test scores for massed items and spaced items were most similar after all items had been studied an equal number of times.
“As expected, test scores for massed items and spaced items (20 per condition) were most similar by the end of the fourth study session, after all items had been studied an equal number of times.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Despite an additional 4 days of either 9 h or 5 h time in bed after the final study session, neither sleep group showed evidence of forgetting across the retention intervals.
“Despite being exposed to an additional 4 days of either 9 h of TIB or 5 h of TIB after the final study session, neither sleep group showed evidence of forgetting (Figure 2B).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Test scores for massed items shown during the other study sessions were consistently worse in adolescents exposed to sleep restriction.
“In contrast, test scores for massed items shown during the other study sessions were consistently worse in adolescents exposed to sleep restriction.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Recall performance on spaced items was very high for both sleep groups.
“Additionally, recall performance on spaced items was very high for both sleep groups, suggesting that these items might have been over-studied.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
After the last study session, there was no evidence of forgetting in either sleep group for retention intervals up to 5 days after learning.
“Contrary to our expectations, after the last study session there was no evidence of forgetting in either sleep group for retention intervals up to 5 days after learning.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Study spacing and sleep duration interact to influence vocabulary recall.
“Our data extend these findings by showing that study spacing and sleep duration interact to influence vocabulary recall.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Test scores improved across study sessions by a small but consistent amount, even for items that had yet to be studied.
“Upon close inspection of cued recall performance for massed items (Figure 4), it can be seen that test scores improved across study sessions by a small but consistent amount, even for items that had yet to be studied.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Exposure to 5 h of TIB did not result in greater forgetting after all items had been studied.
“Our finding that exposure to 5 h of TIB did not result in greater forgetting after all items had been studied is consistent with prior work in adolescents demonstrating that recall of word pairs learned prior to sleep restriction was intact.47”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The magnitude of the spacing effect was greater in students given 5 h of TIB versus 9 h of TIB.
“The magnitude of the spacing effect was greater in students given 5 h of TIB versus 9 h of TIB (Spacing × TIB: LR χ 2 = 8.40, P < 0.01; See Table 2).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingreasoning
The negative impact of sleep restriction on cued recall performance was greater for items presented in the massed condition.
“The negative impact of sleep restriction on cued recall performance was greater for items that were presented in the massed condition.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
An order effect was observed, such that word pairs were better learned when presented in the second study block.
“Consistent with prior work, an order effect was observed (Table 2), such that word pairs were better learned when presented in the second study block.32”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [32] Kornell, 2009, Optimising learning using flashcards: spacing is more effective than cramming, Appl Cognit Psychol source
- Findingown data
For the first set of massed items that was studied, the time course of cued recall performance was similar between sleep groups.
“For the first set of massed items that was studied, the time course of cued recall performance was similar between sleep groups.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationown data
Spaced learning conferred strong protection against the effects of sleep restriction on recall performance.
“Spaced learning conferred strong protection against the effects of sleep restriction on recall performance”
- Also stated in: § DISCUSSION · boosted
“Spaced learning conferred strong resistance to the effects of sleep restriction on memory”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Also stated in: § DISCUSSION · boosted
- Interpretationown data
Students with insufficient sleep were more likely to forget items studied over short time intervals.
“whereas students who had insufficient sleep were more likely to forget items studied over short time intervals.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
Adolescents exposed to sleep restriction can minimize the negative effects of sleep insufficiency on vocabulary learning by increasing their study spacing.
“Our results demonstrate that students exposed to sleep restriction can minimize the negative effects of sleep insufficiency on vocabulary learning by increasing their study spacing.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: A more effective strategy for long-term learning would be to space studying over multiple days with intervening episodes of sufficient sleep.
- Interpretationreasoning
The protective effect of spaced studying during sleep loss could be explained by the benefit of increased retrieval difficulty on declarative memory.
“The protective effect of spaced studying during sleep loss could be explained by the benefit of increased retrieval difficulty on declarative memory.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites [39] Bjork, 1970, The spacing effect: consolidation or differential encoding?, J Verbal Learning Verbal Behav source
- cites [40] Cuddy, 1982, When forgetting helps memory: an analysis of repetition effects, J Verbal Learning Verbal Behav source
- cites [41] Bjork, 2016, A new theory of disuse and an old theory of stimulus fluctuation. From learning processes to cognitive processes. Essays in honor of William K, Estes
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationown data
Exposure to sleep restriction reduces flashcard learning of GRE-type words when studying is not spaced out over time.
“In students who habitually sleep less on school days versus free days, we show that exposure to sleep restriction reduces flashcard learning of GRE-type words when studying is not spaced out over time.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Sleep between encoding and restudying improves long-term memory.
“These results indicate that sleep between encoding and restudying improves longterm memory.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [21] Bell, 2014, Long-term memory. sleep, and the spacing effect, Memory source
- Study design and conductreasoning
We cannot determine with certainty which specific memory processes were affected by exposure to sleep restriction.
“Although this study design simulates what often occurs in adolescents during a typical school week, in which sleep deprivation accumulates over multiple days, we cannot determine with certainty which specific memory processes were affected by exposure to sleep restriction.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationcitation
When studying is spaced out over time, increased retrieval difficulty at encoding may lead to strengthening of memory traces when these items are restudied, thus facilitating subsequent recall.
“However, when studying is spaced out over time, increased retrieval difficulty at encoding may lead to strengthening of memory traces when these items are restudied, thus facilitating subsequent recall.[39][40][41][42]”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites [39] Bjork, 1970, The spacing effect: consolidation or differential encoding?, J Verbal Learning Verbal Behav source
- cites [40] Cuddy, 1982, When forgetting helps memory: an analysis of repetition effects, J Verbal Learning Verbal Behav source
- cites [41] Bjork, 2016, A new theory of disuse and an old theory of stimulus fluctuation. From learning processes to cognitive processes. Essays in honor of William K, Estes
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationown data
The spaced items might have been over-studied.
“Additionally, recall performance on spaced items was very high for both sleep groups, suggesting that these items might have been over-studied.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationown data
Vocabulary learning is especially impaired when poor study strategies are combined with insufficient sleep.
“As suggested in the present study, vocabulary learning is especially impaired when poor study strategies are combined with insufficient sleep.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Study design and conductown data
Subjects assigned to the 9-h and 5-h time-in-bed groups were similar for all measures taken during screening, including basic subject characteristics, sleep behavior, anxiety and depression scores, and nonverbal intelligence.
“Subjects who were assigned to the 9-h and 5-h TIB groups were similar for all measures taken during the screening process, including basic subject characteristics, sleep behavior, anxiety and depression scores, and nonverbal intelligence (Table 1).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
- Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 29
- May combine two claims. 17
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
InterpretationcitationThe protective effect of increased study spacing is explained in part by increased contextual variability at the time of encoding when items are spaced rather than massed, leading to more cues available to aid in recall.
“It is also possible that the protective effect of increased study spacing is explained in part by increased contextual variability at the time of encoding when items are spaced rather than massed, leading to more cues available to aid in recall.43”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked- cites [43] Lohnas, 2011, Contextual variability in free recall, J Mem Lang source
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationThe spacing effect has been demonstrated for a wide variety of learning tasks ranging from fine motor skills to vocabulary learning, assessed in the laboratory or classroom.
“have been demonstrated for a wide variety of learning tasks ranging from fine motor skills to vocabulary learning, assessed either in the laboratory or in the classroom.[12][13][14][15]”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 3 sources checked- cites [12] Cepeda, 2006, Distributed practice in verbal recall tasks: a review and quantitative synthesis, Psychol Bull source
Past Quantitative Reviews (p. 3) reports spacing benefits for verbal learning and motor skills, and the paper discusses foreign-language tasks. Inclusion Criteria (p. 5) confirms that its own synthesis covers varied verbal-recall tasks, not motor skills. The copy does not establish that the effects were demonstrated in both laboratory and classroom settings, so that setting-specific part remains unsupported. (LLM, conf=0.83)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured - cites [13] Donovan, 1999, A meta-analytic review of the distribution of practice effect: now you see it, now you don't, J Appl Psychol source
- cites [14] Lee, 1988, Distribution of practice in motor skill acquisition: learning and performance effects reconsidered, Res Q Exerc Sport source
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
InterpretationcitationThe spacing effect has obvious implications for students and instructors alike, as learning and retention can potentially be optimized by appropriately spacing study sessions and course material over time.
“The spacing effect has obvious implications for students and instructors alike, as learning and retention can potentially be optimized by appropriately spacing study sessions and course material over time.15,48”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 2 sources checked- cites [15] Seabrook, 2005, Distributed and massed practice from laboratory to classroom, Appl Cognit Psychol source
- cites [48] Moulton, 2006, Teaching surgical skills: what kind of practice makes perfect? A randomized, controlled trial, Ann Surg source
The Abstract reports that surgical residents retained skills better after distributed practice and recommends restructuring surgical-training schedules. The claim extends that finding to students’ study sessions and course material generally, which this paper did not test. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Findingown dataIn an exploratory analysis, there was a significant interaction between massed-item Set and time in bed, such that the difference in recall performance between sleep groups was marginally greater for massed items presented in Set 3 relative to Sets 1, 2, and 4.
“there was a significant interaction between Set and TIB (LR χ 2 = 8.48, P = 0.037, η 2 = 0.017), such that the difference in recall performance between sleep groups was marginally greater for massed items presented in Set 3 (Tukey test, P = 0.024) relative to Sets 1, 2, and 4.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
FindingreasoningThere was an approximately linear increase in test scores for massed items during the study phase.
“There was an approximately linear increase in test scores for massed items because participants were shown 5 new massed word pairs each day but were tested on all items from the beginning of the experiment.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Findingown dataThere was a main effect of order on test scores, with better recall of items presented in the second study block of each study session.
“Although there was a main effect of order on test scores with better recall of items presented in the second study block of each study session”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataBoth sleep groups showed a nonlinear increase in recall performance for spaced items across the 4 study sessions, with the largest improvement between the first and second study sessions.
“Both sleep groups showed a nonlinear increase in recall performance for spaced items across the 4 study sessions (Figure 2A), with the largest improvement observed between the first and second study sessions.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataAll 3-way interactions and the 4-way interaction did not reach statistical significance.
“Likewise, all 3-way interactions and the 4-way interaction did not reach statistical significance (LR χ 2 ≤ 0.20, P > 0.8 for all 3-way/4-way interactions).”
- Also stated in: § DISCUSSION · plain
“All 3-way interactions and the 4-way interaction did not reach statistical significance (Retention phase: LR χ 2 ≤ 0.20, P > 0.8; Review phase: LR χ 2 < 1.3, P > 0.2 for all 3-way/4-way interactions).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Also stated in: § DISCUSSION · plain
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Findingown dataSession did not interact with time in bed, and no other interactions reached statistical significance in that analysis.
“Session did not interact with TIB (χ 2 = 1.70,P = 0.19), however, and no other interactions reached statistical significance.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Findingown dataThere was no significant interaction involving order and other predictors.
“was no significant interaction involving order and other predictors (Table 2).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataBy the end of the second study session, test performance was qualitatively similar on spaced items versus massed items, even though subjects had to remember twice as many spaced items with half the number of flashcard presentations.
“By the end of the second study session, test performance was qualitatively similar on spaced items versus massed items, even though subjects had to remember twice as many spaced items with only half the number of flashcard presentations (20 spaced items shown 4 times each versus 10 massed items shown 8 times each).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataSleep restriction had no measurable effect on cued recall performance for items spaced across 4 consecutive days, despite a 28-h reduction in sleep opportunity in the 5-h TIB condition from the first day of studying to the final day of testing.
“we found that sleep restriction had no measurable effect on cued recall performance for items that were spaced across 4 consecutive days, despite a 28-h reduction in the opportunity for sleep in the 5-h TIB condition from the first day of studying to the final day of testing.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataThe difference in cued recall performance between the 5-h TIB and 9-h TIB groups persisted until the one-time review session that occurred 120 h after learning, which then boosted recall for massed items.
“The difference in cued recall performance between the 5-h TIB and 9-h TIB groups persisted until the one-time review session that occurred 120 h after learning, which then boosted recall for massed items.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataThe small increase in test scores for non-studied items was similar between sleep groups, and hence did not explain the interaction between study spacing and TIB for sleep.
“Importantly, the small increase in test scores for non-studied items was similar between sleep groups, and hence did not explain the interaction between study spacing and TIB for sleep.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataThere was a significant interaction between Set and TIB, in which students exposed to sleep restriction showed significantly lower test scores for massed items presented in Sets 2 and 3 after all items had been studied.
“There was a significant interaction between Set and TIB (LR χ 2 = 10.71,P = 0.013), in which students who were exposed to sleep restriction showed significantly lower test scores for massed items presented in Sets 2 and 3 after all items had been studied (indicated by red asterisks, P < 0.05).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
Study design and conductnone givenIn the week before the study, subjects were required to maintain a fixed sleep-wake schedule with 9 h of time in bed per night, verified by actigraphy monitoring.
“In the week before the study, subjects were required to maintain a fixed sleep-wake schedule with 9 h of TIB per night from 23:00 to 08:00, which was verified by actigraphy monitoring.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
PremisereasoningSocial jet lag and sleep debt can result in fatigue and suboptimal performance.
“Similar to the effects of rapid travel across time zones, social jet jag and sleep debt can result in fatigue and suboptimal performance.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
InterpretationreasoningSince only one combination of these factors was examined, the spacing effect might differ if any one of these parameters is manipulated.
“Since only one combination of these factors was examined, the spacing effect might differ if any one of these parameters is manipulated.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
PremisecitationMost students choose to spontaneously cut large flashcard decks into smaller stacks, even though such behavior likely represents a suboptimal strategy for long-term learning.
“Interestingly, most students choose to spontaneously cut large flashcard decks into smaller stacks, 50 even though such behavior likely represents a suboptimal strategy for long-term learning.32”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [50] Salisbury, 1988, A comparison of a microcomputer progressive state drill and flashcards for learning paired associates, J Computer Based Instruction
- cites [32] Kornell, 2009, Optimising learning using flashcards: spacing is more effective than cramming, Appl Cognit Psychol source
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductown dataThe study did not perform an a priori power analysis to assess whether the sample size would be adequate for the statistical comparisons that were performed.
“Another limitation of our study is that we did not perform an a priori power analysis to assess whether our sample size would be adequate for the statistical comparisons that were performed.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
Study design and conductown dataParticipants were randomly assigned to 9-h and 5-h time-in-bed groups prior to the start of the 14-day protocol.
“participants were randomly assigned to 9-h TIB and 5-h TIB groups (n = 30 per group) prior to the start of the 14-day protocol”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Study design and conductown dataThe order of presentation did not interact with study spacing, indicating that findings for TIB and study spacing were not confounded by order effects.
“The order of presentation did not interact with study spacing (Table 2), indicating that our findings for TIB and study spacing were not confounded by order effects.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationLong-term retention is improved when studying takes place at spaced intervals rather than all at once.
“Ebbinghaus showed that long-term retention is improved when studying takes place at spaced intervals, as opposed to all at once.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [11] Ebbinghaus, 1885, Memory; a contribution to experimental psychology
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationRecent work suggests that memories are actively strengthened and stabilized during sleep.
“However, recent work suggests that memories are actively strengthened and stabilized during sleep.20”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [20] Ellenbogen, 2006, The role of sleep in declarative memory consolidation: passive, permissive, active or none?, Curr Opin Neurobiol source
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductreasoningThe present study was not designed to tease apart the differential effects of sleep restriction on encoding versus memory consolidation.
“The present study was not designed to tease apart the differential effects of sleep restriction on encoding versus memory consolidation.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
InterpretationreasoningBecause both sleep groups were given 9 h of TIB on the night before the first study session, the strength of encoding would be expected to be similar for the first set of massed items.
“Because both sleep groups were given 9 h of TIB on the night before the first study session, the strength of encoding would be expected to be similar for the first set of massed items.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductreasoningWe do not know whether advanced exposure to unpaired cue words affected subsequent learning and recall of these massed items.
“Although this allowed us to examine whether students were able to guess target words before they were studied, we do not know whether advanced exposure to unpaired cue words affected subsequent learning and recall of these massed items.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
Study design and conductown dataPolysomnographic data were analyzed on selected nights of the study to validate the sleep manipulation.
“Polysomnographic data were analyzed on selected nights of the study (nights 3, 4, 7, 10, 11, and 13) to validate the sleep manipulation.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
InterpretationreasoningThe limited benefit of increased study spacing in the group given 9 h of TIB could be explained in part by a ceiling effect, since these students performed well at recalling massed items and had less room for improvement relative to the sleep restriction group.
“The limited benefit of increased study spacing in the group of participants given 9 h of TIB could also be explained in part by a ceiling effect, since these students performed well at recalling items that were massed and had less room for improvement relative to the group that underwent sleep restriction.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Interpretationown dataCramming for exams and trading sleep for other activities may come at the expense of increased forgetting, whereas increasing study spacing can serve to minimize the negative effects of sleep loss on learning.
“These results indicate that cramming for exams and trading sleep for other activities may come at the expense of increased forgetting, whereas increasing study spacing can serve to minimize the negative effects of sleep loss on learning.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
InterpretationreasoningThis mechanism could serve to protect against the otherwise impairing effects of sleep loss on learning and memory consolidation.
“This mechanism could serve to protect against the otherwise impairing effects of sleep loss on learning and memory consolidation.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
InterpretationreasoningThe lack of forgetting in our study could be attributed to students learning the word pairs too well for a decrease in cued recall performance to be observed in the time window examined.
“However, it is possible that the lack of forgetting in our study could be attributed to students learning the word pairs too well for a decrease in cued recall performance to be observed in the time window examined.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationThis potentially leads to poorer academic outcomes, with negative implications for long-term learning.
“This potentially leads to poorer academic outcomes, 52 with negative implications for long-term learning.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [52] Touitou, 2013, Adolescent sleep misalignment: a chronic jet lag and a matter of public health, J Physiol Paris source
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationWhen asked to predict their recall performance of studied items that were massed or spaced, students often misjudge cramming as the better study strategy, even when their test results show the opposite effect.
“Moreover, when asked to predict their recall performance of studied items that were massed or spaced, students often misjudge cramming as the better study strategy, even when their test results show the opposite effect.32”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [32] Kornell, 2009, Optimising learning using flashcards: spacing is more effective than cramming, Appl Cognit Psychol source
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).
InterpretationcitationSleep might have contributed differentially to the initial consolidation and later refinement of memory as participants were exposed to spaced items over the course of 4 consecutive days.
“contributed differentially to the initial consolidation and later refinement of memory as participants were exposed to spaced items over the course of 4 consecutive days.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [46] Fogel, 2015, How to become an expert: a new perspective on the role of sleep in the mastery of procedural skills, Neurobiol Learn Mem source
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
InterpretationcitationTwo nights of sleep restriction represented a critical threshold affecting sleep-dependent memory consolidation, whereas students were able to tolerate the first night of partial sleep loss without detectable memory impairment.
“Alternatively, it is possible that 2 nights of sleep restriction represented a critical threshold affecting sleep-dependent memory consolidation, whereas students were able to tolerate the first night of partial sleep loss without detectable memory impairment.45”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [45] Kopasz, 2010, No persisting effect of partial sleep curtailment on cognitive performance and declarative memory recall in adolescents, J Sleep Res source
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
PremisecitationThese factors often lead to a disparity between sleep behavior on weekdays versus weekends, and hence social and biological time, which has been dubbed social jet lag.
“These factors often lead to a disparity between sleep behavior on weekdays versus weekends, and hence social and biological time, which has been dubbed”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [3] Wittmann, 2006, Social jetlag. misalignment of biological and social time, Chronobiol Int source
May combine two claims.
Interpretationown dataSleep restriction might have impaired overnight consolidation of massed items, as there was a trend for decreased recall performance on the day after encoding relative to students given 9 h of TIB.
“In addition, exposure to 5 h of TIB might have impaired overnight consolidation of massed items, as there was a trend for decreased recall performance on the day after encoding relative to students given 9 h of TIB (Figure 4).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductown dataParticipants were not informed of their sleep-group assignment until the first day of the study.
“however, they were not informed of their assignment until the first day of the study.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
InterpretationcitationSleep loss on subsequent nights might have resulted in weaker encoding of short-term memory, even if participants were able to perform well on the immediate recall test, thus increasing the likelihood of forgetting of these items.
“By comparison, sleep loss on subsequent nights might have resulted in weaker encoding of short-term memory, 44 even if participants were able to perform well on the immediate recall test, thus increasing the likelihood of forgetting of these items.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [44] Yoo, 2007, A deficit in the ability to form new human memories without sleep, Nat Neurosci source
The paper relies on this without support.
Many students cram for exams and trade sleep for other activities.
“However, many students cram for exams and trade sleep for other activities.”
The paper relies on this without support.
It has yet to be examined whether repeated exposure to sleep restriction modulates the effects of study spacing on memory.
“However, it has yet to be examined whether repeated exposure to sleep restriction, which often occurs during the school week in adolescents, modulates the effects of study spacing on memory.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Most research on the role of sleep in declarative memory has focused on recall performance after a single study opportunity, while in real life students usually learn across days.
“Most research on the role of sleep in declarative memory has focused on recall performance after a single study opportunity, while in real life students usually learn across days.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
A more effective strategy for long-term learning would be to space studying over multiple days with intervening episodes of sufficient sleep.
“Presumably, a more effective strategy for long-term learning would be to space studying over multiple days with intervening episodes of sufficient sleep.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The study design simulates what often occurs in adolescents during a typical school week, in which sleep deprivation accumulates over multiple days.
“Although this study design simulates what often occurs in adolescents during a typical school week, in which sleep deprivation accumulates over multiple days, we cannot determine with certainty which specific memory processes were affected by exposure to sleep restriction.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The spacing effect in this flashcard task is representative of learning and retention in educational settings.
“The spacing effect has obvious implications for students and instructors alike, as learning and retention can potentially be optimized by appropriately spacing study sessions and course material over time.15,48”
The paper relies on this without support.
Flashcard learning is a common approach used by students to prepare for standardized tests including the GRE.
“We examined flashcard learning because this is a common approach used by students to prepare for standardized tests including the GRE, and yet there is little guidance for students on how to use flashcards for learning.49”
The paper relies on this without support.
Large stacks of cards increase spacing between repeated items, whereas smaller decks reduce spacing.
“Large stacks of cards increase spacing between repeated items, whereas smaller decks reduce spacing.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Social jet lag and sleep debt can result in fatigue and suboptimal performance.
“Similar to the effects of rapid travel across time zones, social jet jag and sleep debt can result in fatigue and suboptimal performance.”
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An update on adolescent sleep: New evidence informing the perfect storm model <sup>☆</sup>
Crowley, S. J., Wolfson, A. R., Tarokh, L., & Carskadon, M. A. (2018) · Journal of Adolescence · doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2018.06.001 · Cited by 684 · see citing works
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Self-citationSleep and Athletic Performance
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“These have identified deficits associated with mood, sustained attention, working memory, executive function, speed of processing (Lo et al., 2015, 2016a), vocabulary learning (Huang et al., 2016) and an increased tendency to form false memories (Lo et al., 2016c).”
BackgroundSelf-citationSleep and Circadian Rhythms in Adolescence
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Self-citationA systematic and meta-analytic review of the impact of sleep restriction on memory formation
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“This suggestion that sleep should not be sacrificed for cramming is supported by evidence showing that recall is impaired following sleep restriction even in the presence of cramming (Huang et al., 2016) and that sleep is more beneficial for long-term retention than cramming (Cousins et al., 2019).”
BackgroundInfluentialSleep’s contribution to memory formation
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Does splitting sleep improve long-term memory in chronically sleep deprived adolescents?
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Self-citationGoldstein, T., & Franzen, P. (2022) · Current Sleep Medicine Reports · doi:10.1007/s40675-022-00222-9 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Hayes, B., & Bainton, J. (2020) · School Psychology International · doi:10.1177/0143034320961130 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“Eight of the studies (Asarnow et al., 2014; Beebe et al., 2010; Dewald-Kaufmann et al., 2013; Huang et al., 2016; Hysing et al., 2016; Lewin et al., 2017; Lo, Bennion, et al., 2016; Ming et al., 2011) examined outcome variables closely related to school performance.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialConsolidating new words from repetitive versus multiple stories: Prior knowledge matters
Henderson, L. M., & James, E. (2017) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2017.09.017 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
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“…fluctuations in EF and sleep by manipulating sleep quality in youth and found that children and adolescents tended to perform worse on EF tasks after sleep restriction (Carskadon et al., 2011; Fonseca & Genzel, 2020; Huang et al., 2016; Jiang et al., 2011; Lo et al., 2016; Randazzo et al., 1998).”
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“Some examples are people lacking proper technical terms or learning a new language (Bogaards, 2001), are sleep deprived (Huang et al., 2016), depressed (Good and Sambhanthan, 2014), or because of long Covid (Cummings, 2022).”
BackgroundSpacing effects in learning and memory
Carpenter, S. K., & Pan, S. C. (2024) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-443-15754-7.00020-1 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
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“A recent study showed that although sleep restriction significantly reduced the recall of learned materials after cramming, it did not negatively affect retention of materials learned over spaced intervals.(17) Therefore, compared with traditional, single course examinations, CE may improve learning and/or increase th…”
BackgroundRemote longitudinal tracking of sleep, depression, and cognition across early adolescence (Preprint)Preprint
Simon, K. C. N. S., Galut, L., Polk, S., Iwata, S., Abbasian, M., Rahmani, A. M., Rao, U., Borelli, J. L., & Mednick, S. C. (2025) · doi:10.2196/preprints.86345
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“In addition, sleep is probabilistic; its occurrence can change when there are competing reinforcers (such as a cram session for a final exam; Huang et al., 2016; Siagian, 2022).”
Simon, K. C. N. S., Galut, L., Polk, S., Iwata, S., Shen, W., Abbasian, M., Rahmani, A. M., Rao, U., Borelli, J. L., & Mednick, S. C. (2026) · JMIR Research Protocols · doi:10.2196/86345
- Authors
- Huang, S., Deshpande, A., Yeo, S.-C., Lo, J. C., Chee, M. W. L., & Gooley, J. J.
- Affiliations
- National University of Singapore (SG)
- Corresponding author
- Gooley, Joshua J.
- Venue
- Sleep
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 2016-09-01
- Volume
- 39
- Issue
- 9
- Pages
- 1681-1690
- ISSN
- 0161-8105 (ISSN-L)
- 1550-9109
- PMC
- PMC4989257
- OpenAlex
- W2414004056
- Cited by
- 28
- References
- 52
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3 · 2025: 3 · 2024: 3 · 2023: 1 · 2022: 3 · 2021: 2 · 2020: 3 · 2019: 3 · 2018: 4 · 2017: 3
- FWCI
- 2.12
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- SLEEP (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- National University of Singapore (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Sleep and Wakefulness Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Sleep and related disorders
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Keywords
- sleep restriction, vocabulary acquisition, spaced learning, massed learning, adolescents, memory retention, cued recall, study habits, insufficient sleep
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Female, Humans, Learning, Male, Mental Recall, Sleep Deprivation, Vocabulary, Young Adult
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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-11.
Cited sources are checked by gpt-6-sol.
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