Why Hackers Do What They Do: Understanding Motivation and Effort in Free/Open Source Software Projects

Survey respondents cite all of the following incentives: own use benefits, complementarity with proprietary products sold in the market, signaling, education, and social psychological motives such as altruism or simple enjoyment.

“When asked their motives, survey respondents cite all of the incentives listed below: own use benefits, complementarity with proprietary products sold in the market, signaling, education, and social psychological motives such as altruism or simple enjoyment.”

Lakhani and Wolf (2005) use factor analysis to group responses into four classes: Learning and Fun 29%, Hobbyists 27%, Professionals 25%, and Community Believers 19%.

“To control for the possibility that these responses are sensitive to the number and phrasing of the questions, Lakhani and Wolf (2005) use factor analysis to group the responses into four classes: Workers who are primarily motivated by education/intellectual stimulation ('Learning and Fun' - 29%), by non-work user needs ('Hobbyists' - 27%), by work-related user needs ('Professionals' - 25%) and by”

Among SourceForge contributors, the top three reasons for participating in open source communities include 'work functionality' (33.8%) and 'non-work functionality' (29.7%).

“Among contributors at SourceForge, the top three reasons for participating in open source communities include 'work functionality' (33.8%) and 'non-work functionality' (29.7%).”

Eighty-six percent of contributors who participate in open source projects for work reasons are paid for at least some of their work.

“Eighty-six percent of contributors who participate in open source projects for work reasons are paid for at least some of their work.”

Lakhani and Wolf (2005) report that 27% of SourceForge contributors write code for 'non-work needs.'

“Lakhani and Wolf (2005) report that 27% of SourceForge contributors write code for 'non-work needs.'”

Paid contributors spent almost twice as much time as volunteers - 10.3 hours compared to 5.7 hours.

“Not surprisingly, paid contributors spent almost twice as much time as volunteers - 10.3 hours compared to 5.7 hours (Lakhani and Wolf, 2005).”

Factor analysis sorted respondents into four groups, including 'professionals' (25%) who are motivated by signaling ('gaining status') as well as solving work needs.

“Finally, Lakhani and Wolf (2005) and Lakhani et al. (2002) use factor analysis on their survey to sort respondents into four groups, including 'professionals' (25%) who are motivated by signaling ('gaining status') as well as solving work needs.”

In the factor analysis of Lakhani and Wolf (2005) and Lakhani et al. (2002), the largest group is 'learning and fun' at 29%.

“In the factor analysis of Lakhani and Wolf (2005) and Lakhani et al. (2002), the largest group is 'learning and fun' at 29%.”

The 'professionals' group is only slightly smaller than the largest group (29%), 'learning and fun.'

“This group is only slightly smaller than their largest group (29%), 'learning and fun.'”

Signaling ('reputation') has only about one-third as much impact as the most powerful predictor, creativity, on hours worked per week.

“Lakhani and Wolf (2005) compare reported incentives against the number of hours worked each week, and find that signaling ('reputation') has only about one-third as much impact as the most powerful predictor, creativity.”

Open source provides a particularly good vehicle for education due to its emphasis on peer review.

“Due to its emphasis on peer review, open source provides a particularly good vehicle for education (Lakhani and Wolf, 2005).”

In the survey of Lakhani and Wolf (2005), improving skill (41.3%) is the second most common incentive reported by open source volunteers, behind intellectual stimulation (44.9%).

“In the survey of Lakhani and Wolf (2005), improving skill (41.3%) is the second most common incentive reported by open source volunteers, behind intellectual stimulation (44.9%).”

Ideological motives are extremely weak: only 11.3% of respondents report that they participate in open source code in order to beat proprietary software and only 5.4% feel so strongly that they would 'never' participate in a closed source project.

“Only a handful of respondents (11.3%) report that they participate in open source code in order to beat proprietary software and only half of these (5.4%) feel so strongly that they would 'never' participate in a closed source project.”

Intellectual stimulation is the most commonly cited incentive (44.9%) among Sourceforge developers.

“For example, Lakhani and Wolf (2005) and Lakhani et al (2002) find that that intellectual stimulation is the most commonly cited incentive (44.9%) among Sourceforge developers.”

Mixing salary with creativity and political goals does not reduce work effort.

“Lakhani and Wolf (2005) report that mixing salary with creativity and political goals does not reduce work effort.”

This may explain why open source contributors are overwhelmingly young, male, and single.

“This may explain why open source contributors are overwhelmingly young, male, and single (Ghosh et al ., 2002, Lakhani and Wolf 2005).”

Other social psychology incentives are less substantial: believing that code should be open (33.1%), feeling an obligation to repay the community (28.6%), and deriving enjoyment from a team enterprise (20.3%).

“These include believing that code should be open (33.1%), feeling an obligation to repay the community (28.6%), and deriving enjoyment from a team enterprise (20.3%).”

Paid workers spend roughly twice as much time on open source projects as unpaid ones.

“In the data of Lakhani and Wolf (2005), paid workers spend roughly twice as much time on open source projects as unpaid ones.”

The need for symbolism is linked to social psychology incentives that would erode in the presence of private gain, or the absence of rules enforcing reciprocity.

“Presumably, the need for symbolism is linked to social psychology incentives that would erode in the presence of private gain, Lakhani and Wolf (2005), or the absence of rules enforcing reciprocity. Kollock (1999).”

Within the obligation/community cluster, 61% report that open source is their most creative experience and 73% report that they lose track of time while programming.

“Within this group, large majorities report that open source is their most creative experience (61%) and that they lose track of time ( i.e. experience 'flow states') while programming (73%).”

55% of respondents contributed code during work hours.

“Ghosh et al (2002) report that 54% of respondents were paid for open source work; Lakhani and Wolf (2005) report that 55% of respondents contributed code during work hours; and Hertel et al (2003) report that 43% of LINUX kernel developers sometimes or always receive salary for their work.”

Similar majorities in the obligation/community cluster either strongly (42%) or somewhat agreed (41%) that the hacker community provided their primary sense of identity.

“Similar majorities either strongly (42%) or somewhat agreed (41%) that the hacker community provided their primary sense of identity.”

The smallest of the four clusters (19%) consists of respondents who are primarily motivated by obligation or community-based intrinsic motivations.

“Referring again to the cluster analysis of Lakhani and Wolf (2005), the smallest of the four clusters (19%) consists of respondents who are primarily motivated by obligation or community-based intrinsic motivations.”

A personal sense of creativity has the largest impact on hours worked per week.

“On the other hand, Lakhani and Wolf (2005) report that a personal sense of creativity has the largest impact on hours worked per week.”

The impact of creativity is twice as large as enjoyment or receiving a salary and three times larger than reputation incentives.

“They find that this impact is twice as large as enjoyment or receiving a salary and three times larger than reputation incentives.”