A practical review of functional neurological disorder (FND) for the general physician
Open accessAbstract
We present a practical overview of functional neurological disorder (FND), its epidemiology, assessment and diagnosis, diagnostic pitfalls, treatment, aetiology and mechanism. We present an update on functional limb weakness, tremor, dystonia and other abnormal movements, dissociative seizures, functional cognitive symptoms and urinary retention, and 'scan-negative' cauda equina syndrome. The diagnosis of FND should rest on clear positive evidence, typically from a combination of physical signs on examination or the nature of seizures. In treatment of FND, clear communication of the diagnosis and the involvement of the multidisciplinary team is beneficial. We recommend that patients with FND are referred to specialists with expertise in neurological diagnosis. FND is a common presentation in emergency and acute medical settings and there are many practical elements to making a positive diagnosis and communication which are useful for all physicians to be familiar with.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The past decades have seen significant efforts by clinicians and academics involved in the assessment and treatment of FND generally to assist colleagues in primary and secondary care to identify and manage patients with these conditions.
“The past decades have seen significant efforts by clinicians and academics involved in the assessment and treatment of FND generally to assist colleagues in primary and secondary care to identify and manage patients with these conditions (34, 35, 36).”
From A qualitative analysis of patients' day-to-day living with functional cognitive disorder (FCD). (2025) · cites this paper as [34]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
Current Concepts in Diagnosis and Treatment of Functional Neurological Disorders
Espay, A. J., Aybek, S., Carson, A., Edwards, M. J., Goldstein, L. H., Hallett, M., LaFaver, K., LaFrance, W. C., Lang, A. E., Nicholson, T., et al. (2018) · JAMA Neurology · doi:10.1001/jamaneurol.2018.1264 · Cited by 786 · see citing works
Self-citationSymptoms and the body: taking the inferential leap
Van den Bergh, O., Witthöft, M., Petersen, S., & Brown, R. J. (2017) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.01.015 · Cited by 543 · see citing works
Who is referred to neurology clinics?—The diagnoses made in 3781 new patients
Stone, J., Carson, A. J., Duncan, R., Roberts, R., Warlow, C., Hibberd, C., Coleman, R. J., Cull, R. E., Murray, G. D., Pelosi, A. J., et al. (2010) · Clinical Neurology and Neurosurgery · doi:10.1016/j.clineuro.2010.05.011 · Cited by 538 · see citing works
Self-citationLudwig, L., Pasman, J. A., Nicholson, T., Aybek, S., David, A. S., Tuck, S., Kanaan, R. A., Roelofs, K., Carson, A., & Stone, J. (2018) · The Lancet Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/s2215-0366(18)30051-8 · Cited by 495 · see citing works
Self-citationPhysiotherapy for functional motor disorders: a consensus recommendation
Nielsen, G., Stone, J., Matthews, A., Brown, M., Sparkes, C., Farmer, R., Masterton, L., Duncan, L., Winters, A., Daniell, L., et al. (2014) · Journal of Neurology Neurosurgery & Psychiatry · doi:10.1136/jnnp-2014-309255 · Cited by 427 · see citing works
Self-citationStone, J., Carson, A., Duncan, R., Coleman, R., Roberts, R., Warlow, C., Hibberd, C., Murray, G., Cull, R., Pelosi, A., et al. (2009) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/awp220 · Cited by 356 · see citing works
Self-citationThe involuntary nature of conversion disorder
Voon, V., Gallea, C., Hattori, N., Bruno, M., Ekanayake, V., & Hallett, M. (2010) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/wnl.0b013e3181ca00e9 · Cited by 335 · see citing works
Popkirov, S., Staab, J. P., & Stone, J. (2018) · Practical Neurology · doi:10.1136/practneurol-2017-001809 · Cited by 334 · see citing works
Self-citationGoldstein, L. H., Robinson, E. J., Mellers, J. D. C., Stone, J., Carson, A., Reuber, M., Medford, N., McCrone, P., Murray, J., Richardson, M. P., et al. (2020) · The Lancet Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/s2215-0366(20)30128-0 · Cited by 287 · see citing works
Self-citationCarson, A. J., Stone, J., Hibberd, C., Murray, G. D., Duncan, R., Coleman, R. J., Warlow, C., ROBERTS, R. C., Pelosi, A. J., Cavanagh, J., et al. (2011) · Journal of Neurology Neurosurgery & Psychiatry · doi:10.1136/jnnp.2010.220640 · Cited by 273 · see citing works
Self-citationRandomised feasibility study of physiotherapy for patients with functional motor symptoms
Nielsen, G., Buszewicz, M., Stevenson, F., Hunter, R., Holt, K., Dudziec, M., Ricciardi, L., Marsden, J., Joyce, E., & Edwards, M. (2017) · Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry · doi:10.1136/jnnp-2016-314408 · Cited by 246 · see citing works
Avberšek, A., & Sisodiya, S. M. (2010) · Journal of Neurology Neurosurgery & Psychiatry · doi:10.1136/jnnp.2009.197996 · Cited by 243 · see citing works
Teodoro, T., Edwards, M. J., & Isaacs, J. D. (2018) · Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry · doi:10.1136/jnnp-2017-317823 · Cited by 241 · see citing works
Functional cognitive disorders: a systematic review
McWhirter, L., Ritchie, C., Stone, J., & Carson, A. (2020) · The Lancet Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/s2215-0366(19)30405-5 · Cited by 240 · see citing works
Self-citationKutlubaev, M. A., Xu, Y., Hackett, M. L., & Stone, J. (2018) · Epilepsy & Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yebeh.2018.10.010 · Cited by 205 · see citing works
Self-citationA framework for understanding the pathophysiology of functional neurological disorder
Drane, D. L., Fani, N., Hallett, M., Khalsa, S. S., Perez, D. L., & Roberts, N. A. (2020) · CNS Spectrums · doi:10.1017/s1092852920001789 · Cited by 205 · see citing works
Tietjen, G. E., Brandes, J. L., Peterlin, B. L., Eloff, A., Dafer, R. M., Stein, M. R., Drexler, E. D., Martin, V. T., Hutchinson, S. L., Aurora, S. K., et al. (2009) · Headache The Journal of Head and Face Pain · doi:10.1111/j.1526-4610.2009.01556.x · Cited by 204 · see citing works
Functional cognitive disorder: dementia’s blind spot
Ball, H. A., McWhirter, L., Ballard, C., Bhome, R., Blackburn, D. J., Edwards, M. J., Fleming, S. M., Fox, N. C., Howard, R., Huntley, J., et al. (2020) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/awaa224 · Cited by 203 · see citing works
Self-citationStephen, C. D., Fung, V., Lungu, C. I., & Espay, A. J. (2021) · JAMA Neurology · doi:10.1001/jamaneurol.2020.3753 · Cited by 187 · see citing works
Occupational therapy consensus recommendations for functional neurological disorder
Nicholson, C., Edwards, M. J., Carson, A. J., Gardiner, P., Golder, D., Hayward, K., Humblestone, S., Jinadu, H., Lumsden, C., MacLean, J., et al. (2020) · Journal of Neurology Neurosurgery & Psychiatry · doi:10.1136/jnnp-2019-322281 · Cited by 159 · see citing works
Self-citationStress and functional neurological disorders: mechanistic insights
Keynejad, R. C., Frodl, T., Kanaan, R., Pariante, C., Reuber, M., & Nicholson, T. R. (2019) · Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry · doi:10.1136/jnnp-2018-318297 · Cited by 151 · see citing works
Prognosis of functional neurologic disorders
Gelauff, J., & Stone, J. (2016) · Handbook of clinical neurology · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-801772-2.00043-6 · Cited by 121 · see citing works
Self-citationStone, J., Carson, A., Duncan, R., Roberts, R., Coleman, R., Warlow, C., Murray, G., Pelosi, A., Cavanagh, J., Matthews, K., et al. (2012) · Journal of Neurology · doi:10.1007/s00415-011-6111-0 · Cited by 110 · see citing works
Self-citationFunctional (Psychogenic) Cognitive Disorders: A Perspective from the Neurology Clinic
Stone, J., Pal, S., Blackburn, D., Reuber, M., Thekkumpurath, P., & Carson, A. (2015) · Journal of Alzheimer's Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-150430 · Cited by 107 · see citing works
Self-citationBendels, M. H. K., Dietz, M. C., Brüggmann, D., Oremek, G. M., Schöffel, N., & Groneberg, D. A. (2018) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2017-020089 · Cited by 102 · see citing works
Incidence and outcome of functional stroke mimics admitted to a hyperacute stroke unit
Gargalas, S., Weeks, R., Khan-Bourne, N., Shotbolt, P., Simblett, S. K., Ashraf, L., Doyle, C., Bancroft, V., & David, A. S. (2015) · Journal of Neurology Neurosurgery & Psychiatry · doi:10.1136/jnnp-2015-311114 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
Complex regional pain syndrome and functional neurological disorders—Time for reconciliation
Popkirov, S., Hoeritzauer, I., Colvin, L., Carson, A. J., & Stone, J. (2019) · Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry · doi:10.1136/jnnp-2018-318298 · Cited by 94 · see citing works
Self-citationHendrickson, R., Popescu, A., Dixit, R., Ghearing, G. R., & Bagic, A. I. (2014) · Epilepsy & Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yebeh.2014.06.026 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
Cranial functional (psychogenic) movement disorders
Kaski, D. N., Bronstein, A. M., Edwards, M. J., & Stone, J. (2015) · The Lancet Neurology · doi:10.1016/s1474-4422(15)00226-4 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
Self-citationRobson, C., & Lian, O. S. (2017) · Wellcome Open Research · doi:10.12688/wellcomeopenres.12133.2 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
The safety of antiepileptic drug withdrawal in patients with non-epileptic seizures
Oto, M. (2005) · Journal of Neurology Neurosurgery & Psychiatry · doi:10.1136/jnnp.2005.064063 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
Do observer and self‐reports of ictal eye closure predict psychogenic nonepileptic seizures?
Syed, T. U., Arozullah, A. M., Suciu, G., Toub, J., Kim, H., Dougherty, M. L., Wehner, T., Stojic, A., Syed, I., & Alexopoulos, A. V. (2008) · Epilepsia · doi:10.1111/j.1528-1167.2007.01456.x · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Duffy, J. R. (2016) · Handbook of clinical neurology · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-801772-2.00033-3 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Hoeritzauer, I., Pronin, S., Carson, A. J., Statham, P. F. X., Demetriades, A. K., & Stone, J. (2018) · Journal of Neurology · doi:10.1007/s00415-018-9078-2 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Self-citationFunctional Neurological Disorder
Popkirov, S., Stone, J., & Buchan, A. M. (2020) · Stroke · doi:10.1161/strokeaha.120.029076 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Self-citationDickson, J. M., Jacques, R., Reuber, M., Hick, J., Campbell, M. J., Morley, R., & Grünewald, R. A. (2018) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2018-023352 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
The misdiagnosis of functional disorders as other neurological conditions
Walzl, D., Carson, A. J., & Stone, J. (2019) · Journal of Neurology · doi:10.1007/s00415-019-09356-3 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Self-citationAssessment of patients with functional neurologic disorders
Carson, A. J., Hallett, M., & Stone, J. (2016) · Handbook of clinical neurology · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-801772-2.00015-1 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Self-citationFunctional Cognitive Disorder: A Common Cause of Subjective Cognitive Symptoms
Pennington, C. M., Hayre, A., Newson, M., & Coulthard, E. J. (2015) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-150182 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Isolated urinary retention in young women, or Fowler's syndrome
Swinn, M. J., & Fowler, C. J. (2001) · Clinical Autonomic Research · doi:10.1007/bf02332976 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Reuber, M., Blackburn, D. J., Elsey, C., Wakefield, S., Ardern, K., Harkness, K., Venneri, A., Jones, D., Shaw, C. B., & Drew, P. (2018) · Alzheimer Disease & Associated Disorders · doi:10.1097/wad.0000000000000231 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Internet-based self-help randomized trial for motor functional neurologic disorder (SHIFT)
Gelauff, J., Rosmalen, J. G. M., Carson, A. J., Dijk, J. M., Ekkel, M., Nielsen, G., Stone, J., & Tijssen, M. A. J. (2020) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/wnl.0000000000010381 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Self-citationFowler's syndrome of urinary retention: A retrospective study of co‐morbidity
Hoeritzauer, I., Stone, J., Fowler, C. J., Elneil, S., Carson, A. J., & Panicker, J. N. (2015) · Neurourology and Urodynamics · doi:10.1002/nau.22758 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Self-citationPsychologic theories in functional neurologic disorders
Carson, A. J., Ludwig, L., & Welch, K. A. (2016) · Handbook of clinical neurology · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-801772-2.00010-2 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Self-citationHypnosis as therapy for functional neurologic disorders.
Deeley, Q. (2016) · Handbook of Clinical Neurology · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-801772-2.00047-3 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Dosanjh, M., Alty, J., Martin, C., Latchford, G. J., & Graham, C. D. (2020) · British Journal of Health Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjhp.12478 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Ten myths about functional neurological disorder
Lidstone, S. C., Araújo, R., Stone, J., & Bloem, B. R. (2020) · European Journal of Neurology · doi:10.1111/ene.14310 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Self-citationA systematic review of paruresis: Clinical implications and future directions
Kuoch, K. L. J., Meyer, D., Austin, D., & Knowles, S. R. (2017) · Journal of Psychosomatic Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2017.05.015 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Functional neurological disorder: psychiatry's blind spot
Keynejad, R. C., Carson, A. J., David, A. S., & Nicholson, T. R. (2017) · The Lancet Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/s2215-0366(17)30036-6 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Self-citationRamm, O., Mueller, E. R., Brubaker, L. T., Löwenstein, L., & Kenton, K. S. (2012) · The Journal of Urology · doi:10.1016/j.juro.2012.01.118 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Is scan‐negative cauda equina syndrome a functional neurological disorder? A pilot study
Gibson, L. L., Harborow, L., Nicholson, T. R., Bell, D., & David, A. S. (2020) · European Journal of Neurology · doi:10.1111/ene.14182 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
1 of the 52 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.
Research works printed but not linked: 2
- Carson A, Lehn A. Epidemiology. In: Hallett M, Stone J, Carson A (eds). Handbook of clinical neurology: Vol 139: Functional neurologic disorders. Elsevier, 2016:47-60.
- Hallett M, Stone J, Carson A (eds). Handbook of clinical neurology: Vol 139: Functional neurologic disorders. Elsevier, 2016.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Understanding Functional Neurological Disorder: Recent Insights and Diagnostic Challenges
Mavroudis, I. A., Kazis, D. A., Kamal, F. Z., Gurzu, I. L., Ciobica, A. S., Pădurariu, M., Novac, B., & Iordache, A. (2024) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms25084470 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
“However, these figures likely underestimate its true prevalence due to underdiagnosis and misdiagnosis, particularly in regions with limited access to specialized care or diagnostic resources [6].”
BackgroundIdentification of biopsychological trait markers in functional neurological disorders
Weber, S., Bühler, J., Vanini, G., Loukas, S., Bruckmaier, R., & Aybek, S. (2023) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/awac442 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Functional neurological disorder: Clinical manifestations and comorbidities; an online survey
Ducroizet, A., Zimianti, I., Golder, D., Hearne, K., Edwards, M. J., Nielsen, G., & Coebergh, J. A. (2023) · Journal of Clinical Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.jocn.2023.02.014 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Joffe, A. R., & Elliott, A. (2023) · SAGE Open Medicine · doi:10.1177/20503121231194400 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Neuropsychological evaluation of functional cognitive disorder: A narrative review
Silverberg, N., & Rush, B. (2023) · Clinical Neuropsychologist · doi:10.1080/13854046.2023.2228527 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
“Contemporary diagnostic criteria for FCD imply that neuropsychological testing is unnecessary because a diagnosis can be made on the basis of internal inconsistencies identified through clinical interview (Ball et al., 2020; Bennett et al., 2021; McWhirter & Carson, 2022).”
BackgroundTransient resting-state salience-limbic co-activation patterns in functional neurological disorders
Weber, S., Bühler, J., Loukas, S., Bolton, T. A. W., Vanini, G., Bruckmaier, R. M., & Aybek, S. (2024) · NeuroImage Clinical · doi:10.1016/j.nicl.2024.103583 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
“Patients with a functional neurological disorder (FND) (American Psychiatric Association, 2013) present with neurological symptoms (Bennett et al., 2021) that cannot be attributed to a classical neurological disease (Drane et al., 2020) but are rather of functional nature.”
BackgroundCole, R. H., Elmalem, M. S., & Petrochilos, P. (2023) · Journal of the Neurological Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.jns.2023.120585 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Tinazzi, M., Fiorio, M., Berardelli, A., Bonetti, B., Bonifati, D. M., Burlina, A. P., Cagnin, A., Calabria, F., Corbetta, M., Cortelli, P., et al. (2021) · Journal of Neurology · doi:10.1007/s00415-021-10840-y · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Sloan, M. A., Andréoli, L., Zandi, M. S., Harwood, R., Pitkänen, M., Sloan, S., Barrere, C., Massou, E., Wincup, C., Bosley, M., et al. (2023) · Lara D. Veeken · doi:10.1093/rheumatology/kead685 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
“Misattributions can entail both under and over attributing to a direct disease effect [7, 9], lead to inappropriate treatment [10] and generate long-term distrust in clinicians [11].”
Staton, A., Dawson, D. L., Merdian, H. L., Tickle, A., & Walker, T. (2023) · Psychology and Psychotherapy Theory Research and Practice · doi:10.1111/papt.12504 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
“Despite these symptoms, medical investigations (e.g., MRI and EEGs) do not show any structural abnormalities, indicating that symptoms may instead be the result of an issue with the functioning of the nervous system (Bennett et al., 2021).”
ONOFRJ, M. C., Digiovanni, A., Ajdinaj, P., Russo, M., Carrarini, C., Giannantonio, M. D., Martinotti, G., & Sensi, S. L. (2021) · Neurological Sciences · doi:10.1007/s10072-021-05422-9 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Lazzari, C. G., Nikolou‐Walker, E., Liu, L. Q., & Rabottini, M. (2024) · Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment · doi:10.2147/ndt.s491376 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Global Epidemiology of Movement Disorders: Rare or Underdiagnosed?
O’Shea, S. A., & Shih, L. C. (2023) · Seminars in Neurology · doi:10.1055/s-0043-1764140 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Spagnolo, P. A., Johnson, K. R., Hodgkinson, C. A., Goldman, D. A., & Hallett, M. (2023) · Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.pnpbp.2023.110756 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Kannan, S., Patel, K., Basilio, D. D., Kirkby, A., Sivan, M., Jones, A. K. P., Mohanraj, R., & Das, A. (2025) · BMJ Neurology Open · doi:10.1136/bmjno-2025-001032 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Functional Speech and Voice Disorders
Freeburn, J. L., & Baker, J. (2023) · Neurologic Clinics · doi:10.1016/j.ncl.2023.02.005 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Long COVID Is Not a Functional Neurologic Disorder
Davenport, T. E., Blitshteyn, S., Clague-Baker, N., Davies‐Payne, D., Treisman, G. J., & Tyson, S. F. (2024) · Journal of Personalized Medicine · doi:10.3390/jpm14080799 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“A neurologic examination is used to demonstrate evidence of internal inconsistency between voluntary movements and automatic movements through findings of a positive Hoover’s sign and hip abductor sign [107].”
MethodSleep disorders in functional neurological disorder - a systematic review and meta-analysis
Kannan, S., Dutta, A., & Das, A. (2024) · Neurological Sciences · doi:10.1007/s10072-024-07931-9 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“Functional neurological disorders (FND) are a spectrum of conditions that manifest primarily through disruptions in brain network function rather than structural changes and one of the most common causes of Neurology outpatient visits or in-patient admissions [1, 2].”
Psychogenic Nonepileptic Seizures in Children and Adolescents
Albert, D. V. F. (2021) · Seminars in Pediatric Neurology · doi:10.1016/j.spen.2021.100949 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Persistent postural‐perceptual dizziness versus vestibular migraine: A narrative review
Moreno‐Ajona, D. (2025) · Headache The Journal of Head and Face Pain · doi:10.1111/head.15078 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“82 Increased antero–posterior sway in posturography has been identified in PPPD 83 and, in general, lower thresholds of vestibular motion perception.”
Physical Rehabilitation of Motor Functional Neurological Disorders: A Narrative Review
Кельмансон, А., Kalichman, L., & Treger, I. (2023) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph20105793 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“There is a significantly higher occurrence of FNDs in women (3:1 ratio) [3,4,15].”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialArgento, E., Omene, E., Jaeger, A. H., Kertes, A., Mitchell, K. A., Necyk, C., Thielking, P. D., & Lewis, E. C. (2023) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2023.1197409 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“Given the wide range of symptoms, high rates of mental health comorbidities, and misdiagnosis or lack of understanding of the diagnosis, people with FS are often overmedicated, which may exacerbate symptoms (Bennett et al., 2021).”
BackgroundGarcin, B., Roze, E. F., Daubigney, A., Carle, G., Degos, B., & Hingray, C. (2023) · L Encéphale · doi:10.1016/j.encep.2023.06.001 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
The neuropsychology of functional neurological disorders
Patten, R. V., & Bellone, J. A. (2023) · Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/13803395.2024.2322798 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“FNDs consist of neurological symptoms (e.g., seizures, tremors, memory loss) that are due to neural network dysfunction rather than readily identifiable structural pathology (Aybek & Perez, 2022; Bennett et al., 2021).”
BackgroundPhysiotherapy management of functional movement disorders: the patient perspective
Zeun, D., & Hunter, H. (2023) · Disability and Rehabilitation · doi:10.1080/09638288.2023.2272709 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“…by a disorder in the functioning of the nervous system rather than a known structural disease process and are distinct from malingering and fictitious disorders [2]. they are the second most common reason for referral to a neurology clinic with around 8000 new diagnoses a year in the UK [3,4].”
Vance, R. C., Clarke, S., O’Keeffe, F. M., Galligan, T., Doherty, A. M., Flynn, C., Kelleher, E., Laffan, A., Doherty, C. P., & Gillan, D. (2024) · Brain and Behavior · doi:10.1002/brb3.3362 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“Similarly, rates of disagreement were captured by those who endorsed either “Disagree” or “Strongly Disagree,” in keeping with Lehn and colleagues (Bennett et al., 2021).”
BackgroundHow do I manage functional visual loss
Ramsay, N., McKee, J. B., Al-Ani, G., & Stone, J. (2024) · Eye · doi:10.1038/s41433-024-03126-w · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“If treatment is being attempted then experience more broadly with FND suggests that therapists notice greatly enhanced treatment responses if the diagnosing clinician or a health professional who can explain the method of diagnosis, remains involved [22].”
BackgroundSelf-citationRezaei, O., & Stanley, M. J. (2025) · Disability and Rehabilitation · doi:10.1080/09638288.2025.2481986 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Regnath, F., Biersack, K., Schröder, L., Stainer, M.-C., von Werder, D., Pürner, D., Haslinger, B. A., & Lehnen, N. (2024) · Journal of Psychosomatic Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2024.111694 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
The role of neuropsychology in the care of patients with functional neurological symptom disorder
Patten, R. V., Mordecai, K. L., & LaFrance, W. C., Jr. (2024) · Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society · doi:10.1017/s1355617724000249 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Butler, M., Bird, C., Maggio, C., Durden, A., Modlin, N. L., Campbell‐Coker, K., Edwards, M. J., Pick, S., Millman, L. S. M., Lowery, E., et al. (2024) · Wellcome Open Research · doi:10.12688/wellcomeopenres.22543.1 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Jackson, M., Szczepaniak, M., Wall, J., Maskery, M. P., Mummery, C. J., Morrish, P., Williams, A. C., Knight, J., & Emsley, H. C. A. (2022) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2022-061843 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Trastornos neurológicos funcionales (TNF): unificando el dualismo mente-cerebro
Marín‐Medina, D. S., Arenas-Vargas, P. A., Arias-Botero, J. C., Gómez-Vásquez, M., & González, C. A. S. (2024) · Acta neurológica colombiana · doi:10.22379/anc.v40i4.1888 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Multidisciplinary Treatment for Functional Movement Disorder
Stone, J., & Carson, A. J. (2025) · CONTINUUM Lifelong Learning in Neurology · doi:10.1212/cont.0000000000001606 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Self-citationComorbidities Across Functional Neurological Disorder Subtypes: A Comprehensive Narrative Synthesis
Mavroudis, I. A., Franekova, K., Petridis, F., Ciobica, A. S., Dăscălescu, G., Anton, E., Ilea, C. G., Papagiannopoulos, S., & Kazis, D. A. (2025) · Life · doi:10.3390/life15081322 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“…referral cohorts, FND accounts for approximately 5–10% of new consultations, while population-based estimates in the United Kingdom suggest an annual incidence of about 12 per 100,000 individuals, equating to roughly 8000 new cases each year and a community prevalence of 50,000–100,000 people [1].”
ONOFRJ, M. C., Ajdinaj, P., Digiovanni, A., Malek, N., Martinotti, G., Ferro, F. M., Russo, M., Thomas, A., & Sensi, S. L. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1120981 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“Several reviews and position papers (1, 21) have detailed the main reasons to separate FND into a category that can cover a welldemarcated group of patients acceptable in much wider neurology practice settings including out-patient and in-patient settings.”
BackgroundModèles de soins validés pour les patients souffrant de troubles neurologiques fonctionnels
Rauline, G., Hingray, C., Carle, G., Hubsch, C. A., El‐Hage, W., Conejero, I., Samalin, L., Garcin, B., & Gharib, A. (2023) · L Encéphale · doi:10.1016/j.encep.2023.06.005 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
The Current State of Pediatric Functional Neurological Disorder Treatment in the United States
Watson, M. M., Kreuzman, J., Zeribi, K. A., Iskander, J. M., Hopper, A., Simon, L., Chesley, G., & Fobian, A. D. (2024) · Pediatric Neurology · doi:10.1016/j.pediatrneurol.2024.06.010 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Al‐Beltagi, M., Saeed, N. K., Bediwy, A. S., Bediwy, E. A., & Elbeltagi, R. M. (2025) · World Journal of Clinical Pediatrics · doi:10.5409/wjcp.v14.i3.105290 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Lagrand, T. J., Gelauff, J., Brusse-Keizer, M. G. J., Lehn, A., Tijssen, M. A. J., & other individuals of the TASMAN Study Group (2024) · European Journal of Neurology · doi:10.1111/ene.16525 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“Our results highlight that patients with FMDs are as disabled and have as impaired quality of life as patients with other movement disorders [40 ].”
Sireci, F., Ragucci, F., Menozzi, C., Cabboi, M. P., Picchetto, L., Bassi, M. C., Ghirotto, L., Cavallieri, F., Pedroni, C., & Valzania, F. (2024) · Journal of Neurology · doi:10.1007/s00415-024-12441-x · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“People experiencing functional neurological symptoms often suffer from comorbid anxiety and depression, either because of misdiagnosis, struggling with the symptoms, or previous adverse life experiences [93].”
Psilocybin and Motor Function: A Triple‐Blind, Dose‐Finding Study in Healthy Participants
Bhagavan, C., Kanaan, R., Carter, O. L., Nielsen, G., Berlowitz, D. J., Issak, S., Braat, S., Zaloumis, S. G., Attard, Z., Oliver, G., et al. (2024) · Psychiatric Research and Clinical Practice · doi:10.1176/appi.prcp.20240047 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Mavroudis, I. A., Franekova, K., Petridis, F., Ciobica, A. S., Papagiannopoulos, S., & Kazis, D. A. (2025) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci15090997 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Batarseh, N., & Abdulla, F. A. (2026) · Nutritional Neuroscience · doi:10.1080/1028415x.2025.2610643 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“The third category includes other brain conditions like migraines and sleep disorders, that do not result in structural or functional damage to the brain [2,7,8].”
Scholfield, D. W., Chandrasekharan, D. P., Bahra, A., Williams, M., & Patel, N. (2022) · The Journal of Laryngology & Otology · doi:10.1017/s0022215122001530 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Biomarkers and Rehabilitation for Functional Neurological Disorder
Mark, V. W. (2024) · Journal of Personalized Medicine · doi:10.3390/jpm14090948 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Lewis, E. C., Jaeger, A. H., Girn, M., Omene, E., Brendle, M., & Argento, E. (2024) · Journal of Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1177/02698811241248395 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Panchamia, J. K., Amundson, A. W., Demirci, O., Braksick, S. A., & Wijdicks, E. F. M. (2022) · A&A Practice · doi:10.1213/xaa.0000000000001569 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Zarotti, N., Poz, R., & Fisher, P. (2022) · Clinical Gerontologist · doi:10.1080/07317115.2022.2130124 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“Currently, FND is estimated to represent over 15% of all referrals to neurology (Stone et al., 2010) with an annual incidence of 12 in 100,000 worldwide (Bennett et al., 2021).”
BackgroundFunctional Neurological Disorder
Butler, M., & Nicholson, T. R. (2024) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781911623861.018 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Recognising and managing functional neurological disorder in the acute healthcare setting
Galenchik-Chan, A., Ren, T., Cohen, D., & Maurer, C. W. (2025) · Emergency Medicine Journal · doi:10.1136/emermed-2024-214459 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“27 As with other neurological disorders, confirmation of the diagnosis of FND should be attained through consultation with a neurologist.”
Functional Neurological Disorder in Saudi Arabia: An Update
Tayeb, H. O. (2023) · Cureus · doi:10.7759/cureus.47607 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Cognitive behavioural therapy for neurologists
Stanton, B. R., Chalder, T., & Carvalho, C. (2023) · Practical Neurology · doi:10.1136/pn-2023-003857 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“Functional neurological disorder accounts for 10% of all neurological appointments 28 and it is characterised by a wide range of symptoms including motor disorders, seizures and cognitive symptoms.”
BackgroundSookdeo, A., Shaikh, Y. M., Bhattacharjee, M., Khan, J., Alvi, W. A., Arshad, M. S., Tariq, A. H., & Muzammil, M. A. (2024) · International Journal of Emergency Medicine · doi:10.1186/s12245-024-00771-6 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“The presentation of functional dystonia is associated with pain and disability, whereas other dystonia’s are generally mobile and more variable in posture [70].”
Diagnosis of Functional Weakness and Functional Gait Disorders in Children and Adolescents
West, E., & Shah, U. H. (2022) · Seminars in Pediatric Neurology · doi:10.1016/j.spen.2022.100955 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Functional seizures and binge eating disorder: A cross-sectional study
Mammì, A., Bova, V., Martino, I., Sammarra, I., Ferlazzo, E., Pascarella, A., Abelardo, D., Marsico, O., Torino, C., Cianci, V., et al. (2024) · Epilepsy & Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yebeh.2024.109943 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“Functional seizures (FS) are paroxysmal changes, limited in time, in responsiveness, motor and sensory activity or behaviour which resemble several medical conditions, namely epileptic seizures, but are the result of complex neuropsychiatric dysfunctions [1].”
BackgroundCase report on psychogenic nonepileptic seizures: A series of unfortunate events
Udofia, A., & Rocke, T. P. (2022) · Clinical Case Reports · doi:10.1002/ccr3.6430 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Putica, A., Agathos, J. A., & Felmingham, K. L. (2025) · Nature Reviews Psychology · doi:10.1038/s44159-025-00479-1 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Kimata, A. R., Cameron-Burr, K. T., & Wilson, T. T. (2025) · Journal of the American College of Emergency Physicians Open · doi:10.1016/j.acepjo.2025.100220 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“10 However, many of these established strategies for the treatment of FND are not feasible or available in the ED.”
Functional neurologic disorder (FND) in pediatrics
Baidoo, L. (2022) · The Nurse Practitioner · doi:10.1097/01.npr.0000873532.17436.85 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“FND is two to three times more common in females and can occur at all ages, although it is rare to present before the age of 10, therefore largely affecting the adolescent population.(5,6) The symptoms of FND can be severely disabling and affect physical functioning, school attendance/activities, and socialization.”
InfluentialFunctional neurological disorder in Saudi Arabia: A retrospective study
Tayeb, H. O. (2023) · The International Journal of Psychiatry in Medicine · doi:10.1177/00912174231215908 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“The author systematically went through pertinent elements of the clinical evaluation to diagnose FND.”
InfluentialPhysical therapy evaluation and treatment of functional movement disorders: A case series
Mowry, H., Perez, E., Stillwell, A., & Shearin, S. (2025) · Physiotherapy Theory and Practice · doi:10.1080/09593985.2025.2514126 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“Women are about three times more likely to be diagnosed with this condition as compared to men; however, as the age of symptom onset increases, the proportion of men affected increases (Baizabal ‐ Carvallo and Jankovic, 2020; Bennett et al, 2021).”
Assessing the hidden burden of psychiatric disease in patients with nonepileptic seizures
Lenio, S., Baker, S., Watson, M. M., Libbon, R., Sillau, S., & Strom, L. A. (2021) · Epilepsy & Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yebeh.2021.108382 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Pearce, L. N., Prindiville, P., Scroggie, C., Taylor, G., Clarke, A., Foster, A. M., & Milne, S. (2024) · Health & Social Care in the Community · doi:10.1155/2024/5547318 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“Neurologist involvement is the frst critical step to providing successful care as they have a distinct role in communicating a FND diagnosis [27, 28] and providing ongoing education and monitoring.”
BackgroundErweiterte Diagnostik bei dissoziativen Anfällen
Schöne, C., Abourafia, K., & Pensel, M. C. (2024) · Clinical Epileptology · doi:10.1007/s10309-024-00683-8 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Alshimemeri, S. A., Alabandi, F. A., Binabbad, R. S., Elmutawi, H., Alabdi, G., & Gilmour, G. S. (2024) · BMC Neurology · doi:10.1186/s12883-024-03810-0 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“Considering that FND is now a “rule-in” diagnosis, positive diagnostic criteria should be utilized [13], which in turn would minimise diagnostic delays and enhance the overall management.”
BackgroundFunctional Neurological Disorder: Overview and a Case Study
Muhrer, J. C. (2021) · The Journal for Nurse Practitioners · doi:10.1016/j.nurpra.2021.08.020 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
A qualitative analysis of patients' day-to-day living with functional cognitive disorder (FCD).
Mantovani, N., Poole, N., Cope, S., Vanzan, S., Duffus, A., Williams, T., Smith, J. G., Barrett, B., Scicluna, M., Beardmore, S., et al. (2025) · Disability and Rehabilitation · doi:10.1080/09638288.2025.2460725 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“The past decades have seen significant efforts by clinicians and academics involved in the assessment and treatment of FND generally to assist colleagues in primary and secondary care to identify and manage patients with these conditions [35,36].”
Gatherer, C., & Garip, G. (2025) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.1177/00332941251351234 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Functional Neurological Disorders: A Comprehensive Review.
Lalitha, L., Acharya, P., Javali, M., Mehta, A., & Rangaiah, P. (2025) · Journal of Association of Physicians of India · doi:10.59556/japi.73.1051 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Functional movement and gait disorders: A matter of age?
Kayombo, G. K., Witjas, T., Comet, C., Mira, V., Benchetrit, E., Monteiro-Dias, N., Fortanier, É., Maarouf, A., Eusébio, A., Azulay, J., et al. (2025) · Journal of Psychosomatic Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2025.112471 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Muhr, P. (2026) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2026.119108 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Othman, A., Cecchini, A. A., EFTAIHA, A., Nwosisi, N., & Pierce, D. M. (2022) · Cureus · doi:10.7759/cureus.26378 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“Pharmacologic therapy currently has no direct role in the treatment of FND, but it may be used to treat coexisting psychiatric or neurological disorders [9].”
BackgroundInfluentialDevon Partnership NHS Trust, U., Russell, L. A., Butler, L., Exeter Neuro Rehabilitation Services, U., Lovegrove, C., Owens, C., Devon Partnership NHS Trust, U., Roberts, L., Yates, P., Devon Partnership NHS Trust, U., et al. (2022) · Advances in Clinical Neuroscience & Rehabilitation · doi:10.47795/kazj3546 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Functional Neurological Disorders
Sinanović, O., Zukić, S., Banović, S., Sinanović, E., & Muftić, M. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-33013-1_14 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Boico, V., Humblestone, S., Moutoussis, M., & Selai, C. E. (2023) · Counselling and Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1002/capr.12709 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“…can range in duration from brief to persistent episodes (Petrochilos et al., 2020), including motor (e.g., jerks, weakness and tremor) and sensory symptoms (e.g., pins and needles) to impaired vision and/ or speech, dissociative events, seizures and cognitive dysfunction (Bennett et al., 2021).”
Scheurich, J. A., Klaas, K. M., Sim, L. A., Weiss, K., Case, H. F., & Harbeck‐Weber, C. (2024) · Epilepsy & Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yebeh.2024.109689 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Leochico, C. F. D., Mitchell, S. B., Levitt, S. E., Tam, A. K. H., & Guo, M. (2024) · Journal of the International Society of Physical and Rehabilitation Medicine · doi:10.1097/ph9.0000000000000029 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Leandertz, M., & Ala-Ruona, E. (2024) · Approaches An Interdisciplinary Journal of Music Therapy · doi:10.56883/aijmt.2024.395 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Funktionelle neurologische Störungen in der Neurorehabilitation
Schmidt, R., van Husen, D. K., Gegusch, M., & Schmid, D. A. (2024) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-66957-0_38 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
A Measure of Swallow Effort Using the Borg Category Ratio 10 Perceived Exertion Scale
Cortez-Aoyagi, M., Gufstason, E., Murphy, A. M., & van Mersbergen, M. (2023) · American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology · doi:10.1044/2023_ajslp-23-00090 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Varley, D., Scorer, L., Bramley, S., & Feltz-Cornelis, C. M. V. D. (2024) · General Hospital Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.genhosppsych.2024.04.008 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Functional neurological disorder: a review
Dusara, K., Davies, S., & Lee, Y. (2023) · BDJ · doi:10.1038/s41415-023-6054-8 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Işık, N. A., Grager, B., Neugebauer, J., & Pauli, J. D. (2024) · Psychiatria Danubina · doi:10.24869/psyd.2024.118 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Optimizing the Team Approach: Designing a Clinical Care Pathway for Functional Neurological Disorder
Brown, L., Norwood, M., & Thompson, L. G. (2024) · Journal for Healthcare Quality · doi:10.1097/jhq.0000000000000445 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Psychological assessment and support in functional neurological disorder: a longitudinal study
Radin, Y., Bulfon, M., Caruso, P., Barbi, E., Manganotti, P., & Clarici, A. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1506069 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Assessment of emergency department physician perspectives on people with functional seizures
Moore, M., Watson, M. M., & Strom, L. A. (2025) · Epilepsy & Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yebeh.2025.110494 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Prevalence of somatic symptom and related disorders at a tertiary neuroimmunology clinic
Sarin, S., Borthwick, K. G., Kumar, P., Shrestha, R., & Abboud, H. (2025) · Multiple Sclerosis and Related Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.msard.2025.106588 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Maassen, L., Fox, N., & Stiller, K. R. (2025) · Journal of the Neurological Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.jns.2025.123671 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Davies, S., Rafi, D., Rifkin-Zybutz, R. P., Heyland, S., & Jadhakhan, F. (2025) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2025-101122 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Raffman, E. S., Sorets, T. R., Golding, D., Finley, J. A., Carson, A. J., & Cotton, E. (2025) · Journal of Neuropsychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.neuropsych.20250097 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Self-citationPlacebo in Functional Neurological Disorders: Promise and Controversy
Szejko, N., Abusrair, A. H., Pasierski, T., Schmitt, S., Cramer, C., Pietrzykowski, T., Dunalska, A., Saramak, K., Śmiłowska, K., Serranová, T., et al. (2025) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare13222863 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Although incongruity or incompatibility with recognized neurological disease remains in the diagnostic criteria, this is increasingly viewed as a problematic exclusion criterion, as not all disease patterns are fully understood [6].”
Unseen struggles: The psychosocial toll of raising a child with functional neurological disorder
Ahmad, W., Dastagir, M., Azhar, I. A., Ahmad, S., & Batool, S. (2025) · Journal of Shalamar Medical & Dental College - JSHMDC · doi:10.53685/jshmdc.v6i2.337 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Chappidi, R., Serafin, J., & Barnett, K. M. (2026) · A&A Practice · doi:10.1213/xaa.0000000000002159 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Hjiej, G., Sikkal, A., Khattab, H., Haddouali, K., Bellakhdar, S., Otmani, H. E., Moutawakil, B. E., & Rafai, M. A. (2026) · Journal of Clinical Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.jocn.2026.111913 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Building a Functional Neurological Disorder Program: Finding Solutions to Common Obstacles
López, M. R., & LaFrance, W. C., Jr. (2026) · Seminars in Neurology · doi:10.1055/a-2796-7123 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
A guide to functional disease for a trauma conscious generation
Whitfield, A. (2021) · Clinical Medicine · doi:10.7861/clinmed.2020-1023 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Morisetty, H., Wallace, N., & Ugorji, U. (2021) · Frontiers in Medical Case Reports · doi:10.47746/fmcr.2021.2506 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Studies indicate FND can occur in all age groups, although rarer in patients under 10 years of age (Bennett et al., 2021).”
BackgroundInfluentialFunctional Neurological Disorders in Children and Adolescents – A Long-Overdue Renaissance
Albert, D. V. F. (2022) · Seminars in Pediatric Neurology · doi:10.1016/j.spen.2022.100954 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Considerations in the Management of Functional Neurological Disorders in Patients with Hearing Loss
Libdeh, A. A., Alkalbani, L., Freedman, D., Quezada, J., & Nyp, S. S. (2023) · Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics · doi:10.1097/dbp.0000000000001170 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
- Authors
- Bennett, K., Diamond, C., Hoeritzauer, I., Gardiner, P., McWhirter, L., Carson, A., & Stone, J.
- Affiliations
- Edinburgh Royal Infirmary (GB)
- University of Edinburgh (GB)
- Venue
- Clinical Medicine
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2021-01
- Volume
- 21
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 28-36
- ISSN
- 1470-2118 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC7850207
- OpenAlex
- W3123764886
- Cited by
- 169
- References
- 52
- Citations by year
- 2026: 40 · 2025: 37 · 2024: 43 · 2023: 27 · 2022: 14 · 2021: 8
- FWCI
- 4.10
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Clinical Medicine (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Edinburgh Research Explorer (University of Edinburgh) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Psychosomatic Disorders and Their Treatments
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Surgery › Cardiovascular Syncope and Autonomic Disorders
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Fibromyalgia and Chronic Fatigue Syndrome Research
- Keywords
- conversion disorder, functional tremor, functional dystonia, psychogenic non-epileptic seizures, urinary retention, cauda equina syndrome, diagnostic pitfalls, etiology, multidisciplinary management, emergency medicine
- MeSH terms
- Conversion Disorder, Emergency Service, Hospital, Humans, Nervous System Diseases, Seizures, Tremor, General Practitioners
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
