A twin study of genetic and environmental contributions to liability for posttraumatic stress symptoms
Abstract
We studied 4042 Vietnam era veteran monozygotic and dizygotic male twin pairs to determine the effects of heredity, shared environment, and unique environment on the liability for 15 self-reported posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms included in the symptom categories of reexperiencing the trauma, avoidance of stimuli related to the trauma, and increased arousal. Quantitative genetic analysis reveals that inheritance has a substantial influence on liability for all symptoms. Symptoms in the reexperiencing cluster and one symptom in the avoidance and numbing cluster are strongly associated with combat exposure, and monozygotic pairs are more highly concordant for combat exposure than dizygotic pairs. By fitting a bivariate genetic model, we show that there are significant genetic influences on symptom liability, even after adjusting for differences in combat exposure; genetic factors account for 13% to 30% of the variance in liability for symptoms in the reexperiencing cluster, 30% to 34% for symptoms in the avoidance cluster, and 28% to 32% for symptoms in the arousal cluster. There is no evidence that shared environment contributes to the development of posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms.
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PTSD has long been associated with intrinsic, environmental, and genetic factors.
“Further, PTSD has long been associated with intrinsic [e.g., age and gender (48, 49)], environmental (e.g., exposure to trauma, rearing environment, degree of social support), and genetic factors (50–52).”
From Conditioned fear associated phenotypes as robust, translational indices of trauma-, stressor-, and anxiety-related behaviors (2014) · cites this paper as [50]
Genetic factors account for 30-72% of the vulnerability to develop PTSD.
“Much evidence indicates that genetic factors play an important role, accounting for 30-72% of the vulnerability to develop PTSD 91,92 .”
From Post‐traumatic stress disorder: a state‐of‐the‐art review of evidence and challenges (2019) · cites this paper as [91]
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- Authors
- True, W. R.
- Affiliations
- Saint Louis University (US)
- Corresponding author
- True, William R.
- Venue
- Archives of General Psychiatry
- Publisher
- American Medical Association (AMA)
- Published
- 1993-04-01
- Volume
- 50
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 257
- ISSN
- 0003-990X (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2029281360
- Cited by
- 704
- References
- 38
- Citations by year
- 2026: 11 · 2025: 8 · 2024: 12 · 2023: 6 · 2022: 29 · 2021: 18 · 2020: 25 · 2019: 24 · 2018: 17 · 2017: 16 · 2016: 33 · 2015: 38 · 2014: 31 · 2013: 37 · 2012: 34
- FWCI
- 18.24
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Archives of General Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (5r01mh037685-17)
- National Institute of Mental Health (MH37685)
- National Institute on Drug Abuse (DA07261-01, 1 RO1 DA0 4604-01, T32DA007261)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Research
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Genetics › Genetic Associations and Epidemiology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child Abuse and Trauma
- Keywords
- post-traumatic stress disorder, posttraumatic stress symptoms, heritability, genetic susceptibility, shared environment, nonshared environment, monozygotic twins, dizygotic twins, combat exposure, Vietnam War veterans, re-experiencing symptoms, avoidance symptoms, hyperarousal
- MeSH terms
- Asia, Southeastern, Combat Disorders, Diseases in Twins, Humans, Life Change Events, Male, Models, Genetic, Psychiatric Status Rating Scales, Stress Disorders, Post-Traumatic, Twins, Dizygotic, Twins, Monozygotic, Warfare
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