Political Misinformation

Jerit, Jennifer; Zhao, Yangzi

doi:10.1146/annurev-polisci-050718-032814

Cited by 264Misinformation and Its ImpactsElectoral Systems and Political ParticipationMedia Influence and Politics

Political Misinformation

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Jerit, Jennifer, Zhao, Yangzi·2020·Annual Review of Political Science

DOI 10.1146/annurev-polisci-050718-032814

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Abstract

Misinformation occurs when people hold incorrect factual beliefs and do so confidently. The problem, first conceptualized by Kuklinski and colleagues in 2000, plagues political systems and is exceedingly difficult to correct. In this review, we assess the empirical literature on political misinformation in the United States and consider what scholars have learned since the publication of that early study. We conclude that research on this topic has developed unevenly. Over time, scholars have elaborated on the psychological origins of political misinformation, and this work has cumulated in a productive way. By contrast, although there is an extensive body of research on how to correct misinformation, this literature is less coherent in its recommendations. Finally, a nascent line of research asks whether people's reports of their factual beliefs are genuine or are instead a form of partisan cheerleading. Overall, scholarly research on political misinformation illustrates the many challenges inherent in representative democracy.

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Misinformation can lead to misperceptions.
“Misinformation can lead to misperceptions, as discussed earlier with regard to elites (Jerit & Zhao, 2020).”
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Sorted by citations

Partisan Gaps in Political Information and Information-Seeking Behavior: Motivated Reasoning or Cheerleading?
Peterson, E., & Iyengar, S. (2019) · doi:10.31235/osf.io/pmn7h · Cited by 241 · see citing works
Misinformation, disinformation, and fake news: lessons from an interdisciplinary, systematic literature review
Broda, E., & Strömbäck, J. (2024) · Annals of the International Communication Association · doi:10.1080/23808985.2024.2323736 · Cited by 220 · see citing works
State of the world 2021: autocratization changing its nature?
Boese, V. A., Lundstedt, M., Morrison, K., Sato, Y., & Lindberg, S. I. (2022) · Democratization · doi:10.1080/13510347.2022.2069751 · Cited by 141 · see citing works
The Effect of Frames on COVID-19 Vaccine Resistance
Palm, R. I., Bolsen, T., & Kingsland, J. T. (2021) · Frontiers in Political Science · doi:10.3389/fpos.2021.661257 · Cited by 123 · see citing works
Public Perceptions of Women’s Inclusion and Feelings of Political Efficacy
STAUFFER, K. E. (2021) · American Political Science Review · doi:10.1017/s0003055421000678 · Cited by 117 · see citing works
On the relationship between conspiracy theory beliefs, misinformation, and vaccine hesitancy
Enders, A. M., Uscinski, J. E., Klofstad, C., & Stoler, J. B. (2022) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0276082 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
The role of race, religion, and partisanship in misperceptions about COVID-19
Druckman, J. N., Ognyanova, K., Baum, M., Lazer, D. M. J., Perlis, R. H., Volpe, J. D., Santillana, M., Chwe, H., Quintana, A., & Simonson, M. D. (2021) · Group Processes & Intergroup Relations · doi:10.1177/1368430220985912 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
Democratic Speech in Divided Times
Lepoutre, M. (2021) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198869757.001.0001 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
The “Infodemic” Infodemic: Toward a More Nuanced Understanding of Truth-Claims and the Need for (Not) Combatting Misinformation
Krause, N. M., Freiling, I., & Scheufele, D. A. (2022) · The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science · doi:10.1177/00027162221086263 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Misperceptions about Immigration: Reviewing Their Nature, Motivations and Determinants
Lutz, P., & Bitschnau, M. (2022) · British Journal of Political Science · doi:10.1017/s0007123422000084 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Populist Syndrome and Nonmarket Strategy
Blake, D., Markus, S., & Martinez‐Suarez, J. (2022) · Journal of Management Studies · doi:10.1111/joms.12859 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Social and Cognitive Aspects of the Vulnerability to Political Misinformation
Pantazi, M., Hale, S. A., & Klein, O. (2021) · Political Psychology · doi:10.1111/pops.12797 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Walls, Cages, and Family Separation
Wallace, S. J., & Zepeda‐Millán, C. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108894920 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
The Landscape of User-centered Misinformation Interventions - A Systematic Literature Review
Hartwig, K., Doell, F., & Reuter, C. (2024) · ACM Computing Surveys · doi:10.1145/3674724 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
How to study democratic backsliding
Druckman, J. N. (2024) · Political Psychology · doi:10.1111/pops.12942 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Measuring Misperceptions?
GRAHAM, M. H. (2022) · American Political Science Review · doi:10.1017/s0003055422000387 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Misinformation and Literacies in the Era of Generative Artificial Intelligence: A Brief Overview and a Call for Future Research
Chu-Ke, C., & Dong, Y. (2024) · Emerging Media · doi:10.1177/27523543241240285 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Acquiescence Bias Inflates Estimates of Conspiratorial Beliefs and Political Misperceptions
Hill, S. J., & Roberts, M. E. (2023) · Political Analysis · doi:10.1017/pan.2022.28 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Can Purpose Foster Stakeholder Trust in Corporations?
Gulati, R., & Wohlgezogen, F. (2023) · Strategy Science · doi:10.1287/stsc.2023.0196 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Rumors in Retweet: Ideological Asymmetry in the Failure to Correct Misinformation
DeVerna, M., Guess, A. M., Berinsky, A. J., Tucker, J. A., & Jost, J. T. (2022) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/01461672221114222 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Counterspeech
Cepollaro, B., Lepoutre, M., & Simpson, R. M. (2022) · Philosophy Compass · doi:10.1111/phc3.12890 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Misinformation and Hate Speech: The Case of Anti-Asian Hate Speech During the COVID-19 Pandemic
Kim, J. Y., & Kesari, A. (2021) · Journal of Online Trust and Safety · doi:10.54501/jots.v1i1.13 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
The Forum: Global Challenges to Democracy? Perspectives on Democratic Backsliding
Bartels, L. M., Daxecker, U., Hyde, S., Lindberg, S. I., & Nooruddin, I. (2023) · International Studies Review · doi:10.1093/isr/viad019 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Artificial Intelligence and Political Deepfakes: Shaping Citizen Perceptions Through Misinformation
Momeni, M. (2024) · Journal of Creative Communications · doi:10.1177/09732586241277335 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Ideological Bias and Trust in Information Sources
Gentzkow, M. A., Wong, M. B., & Zhang, A. T. (2025) · American Economic Journal Microeconomics · doi:10.1257/mic.20210406 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Do conspiracy beliefs fuel support for reactionary social movements? Effects of misbeliefs on actions to oppose lockdown and to “stop the steal”
Thomas, E. F., Bird, L. H., O'Donnell, A. W., Osborne, D., Buonaiuto, E., Yip, L., Lizzio‐Wilson, M., Wenzel, M., & Skitka, L. J. (2024) · British Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjso.12727 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
The Liar’s Dividend: Can Politicians Claim Misinformation to Evade Accountability?
Schiff, K. J., Schiff, D. S., & Bueno, N. S. (2024) · American Political Science Review · doi:10.1017/s0003055423001454 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
The misinformation recognition and response model: an emerging theoretical framework for investigating antecedents to and consequences of misinformation recognition
Amazeen, M. A. (2023) · Human Communication Research · doi:10.1093/hcr/hqad040 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Threats to Science: Politicization, Misinformation, and Inequalities
Druckman, J. (2022) · The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science · doi:10.1177/00027162221095431 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
How News Coverage of Misinformation Shapes Perceptions and Trust
Thorson, E. A. (2024) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781009488815 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
“I know it’s a deepfake”: the role of AI disclaimers and comprehension in the processing of deepfake parodies
Lu, H., & Yuan, S. (2024) · Journal of Communication · doi:10.1093/joc/jqae022 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Changing Americans’ Attitudes about Immigration: Using Moral Framing to Bolster Factual Arguments
Voelkel, J., Malik, M., Redekopp, C., & Willer, R. (2021) · The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science · doi:10.1177/00027162221083877 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Platforms, Politics, and the Crisis of Democracy: Connective Action and the Rise of Illiberalism
Bennett, W. L., & Livingston, S. G. (2025) · Perspectives on Politics · doi:10.1017/s1537592724002123 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Political Deepfakes Are As Credible As Other Fake Media And (Sometimes) Real Media
Barari, S., Lucas, C., & Munger, K. (2021) · doi:10.31219/osf.io/cdfh3 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Can News Literacy Help Reduce Belief in COVID Misinformation?
Ashley, S., Craft, S., Maksl, A., Tully, M., & Vraga, E. K. (2022) · Mass Communication & Society · doi:10.1080/15205436.2022.2137040 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Issue Importance and the Correction of Misinformation
Vidigal, R., & Jerit, J. (2022) · Political Communication · doi:10.1080/10584609.2022.2123580 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Self-citation
Sustaining Exposure to Fact-Checks: Misinformation Discernment, Media Consumption, and Its Political Implications
Bowles, J., Croke, K. G., Larreguy, H., Liu, S., & Marshall, J. (2025) · American Political Science Review · doi:10.1017/s0003055424001394 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Social network dynamics, bots, and community-based online misinformation spread: Lessons from anti-refugee and COVID-19 misinformation cases
Zhen, L., Yan, B., Tang, J. L., Nan, Y., & Yang, A. (2022) · The Information Society · doi:10.1080/01972243.2022.2139031 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Twitter’s Disputed Tags May Be Ineffective at Reducing Belief in Fake News and Only Reduce Intentions to Share Fake News Among Democrats and Independents
Lees, J. M., McCarter, A., & Sarno, D. M. (2022) · Journal of Online Trust and Safety · doi:10.54501/jots.v1i3.39 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Wired to seek, comment and share? Examining the relationship between personality, news consumption and misinformation engagement
Xiao, X., & Su, Y. (2022) · Online Information Review · doi:10.1108/oir-10-2021-0520 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
What Circulates on Partisan WhatsApp in India? Insights from an Unusual Dataset
Chauchard, S., & Garimella, K. (2022) · Journal of Quantitative Description Digital Media · doi:10.51685/jqd.2022.006 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Who Posts Fake News? Authentic and Inauthentic Spreaders of Fabricated News on Facebook and Twitter
Dourado, T. (2023) · Journalism Practice · doi:10.1080/17512786.2023.2176352 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Mapping the Landscape of Misinformation Detection: A Bibliometric Approach
Sandu, A., Ioanăş, I., Delcea, C., Geantă, L.-M., & Cotfas, L. (2024) · Information · doi:10.3390/info15010060 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Analysing the Effect of Recommendation Algorithms on the Spread of Misinformation
Fernández, M., Bellogín, A., & Cantador, I. (2024) · ACM Web Science Conference (WebSci) · doi:10.1145/3614419.3644003 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Analyzing Misinformation Claims During the 2022 Brazilian General Election on WhatsApp, Twitter, and Kwai
Hale, S. A., Belisário, A., Mostafa, A. N., & Camargo, C. Q. (2024) · International Journal of Public Opinion Research · doi:10.1093/ijpor/edae032 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Disinformation and Conspiracy Theories in the Age of COVID-19
Pereira, P. S., Silveira, A. D. S., & Pereira, A. (2020) · Frontiers in Sociology · doi:10.3389/fsoc.2020.560681 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Astroturfing as a strategy for manipulating public opinion on Twitter during the pandemic in Spain
García, S. A., Said-Hung, E. M., & Mottareale, D. (2022) · El Profesional de la Informacion · doi:10.3145/epi.2022.may.10 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
How perceptions of autonomy relate to beliefs about inequality and fairness
Aldama, A., Bicchieri, C., Freundt, J., Mellers, B. A., & Peters, E. M. (2021) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0244387 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Debunking “fake news” on social media: Immediate and short-term effects of fact-checking and media literacy interventions
Berger, L., Kerkhof, A., Mindl, F., & Münster, J. (2025) · Journal of Public Economics · doi:10.1016/j.jpubeco.2025.105345 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Effects of Repeated Corrections of Misinformation on Organizational Trust: More is Not Always Better
Denner, N., Viererbl, B., & Koch, T. (2022) · International Journal of Strategic Communication · doi:10.1080/1553118x.2022.2135098 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Seven years of studying the associations between political polarization and problematic information: a literature review
Marino, G., & Iannelli, L. (2023) · Frontiers in Sociology · doi:10.3389/fsoc.2023.1174161 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Uninformed or Misinformed in the Digital News Environment? How Social Media News Use Affects Two Dimensions of Political Knowledge
Haugsgjerd, A., Karlsen, R., & Steen‐Johnsen, K. (2023) · Political Communication · doi:10.1080/10584609.2023.2222070 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
The importance of epistemology for the study of misinformation
Uscinski, J. E., Littrell, S., & Klofstad, C. (2024) · Current Opinion in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2024.101789 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Dual Process Models and Information Engagement: Testing Effects of Seeking, Scanning, and Trust in Sources on Attitudes Toward Marijuana
Lewis, N., Rossmann, C., de Bruijn, G., & Martinez, L. S. (2021) · Journal of Communication · doi:10.1093/joc/jqab024 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
The preference for belief, issue polarization, and echo chambers
Baumgaertner, B. O., & Justwan, F. (2022) · Synthese · doi:10.1007/s11229-022-03880-y · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Blame over blackouts: Correcting partisan misinformation regarding renewable energy in the United States
Benegal, S. D., & Scruggs, L. A. (2024) · Energy Research & Social Science · doi:10.1016/j.erss.2024.103543 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Coping with Cross‐Pressures: The Seamless Garment in Catholic Political Behavior
Antkowiak, L. S., Allen, L. G., & Layman, G. C. (2021) · Political Psychology · doi:10.1111/pops.12796 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
The role of ‘non-knowledge’ in crisis policymaking: a proposal and agenda for future research
Hannah, A., Tchilingirian, J. S., Botterill, L. C., & Attwell, K. (2022) · Evidence & Policy · doi:10.1332/174426421x16552882375377 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Overconfident, resentful, and misinformed: How racial animus motivates confidence in false beliefs
Benegal, S. D., & Motta, M. (2022) · Social Science Quarterly · doi:10.1111/ssqu.13224 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Using narratives to correct politically charged health misinformation and address affective belief echoes
Lillie, H. M., Ratcliff, C. L., King, A. J., Pokharel, M., & Jensen, J. D. (2024) · Journal of Public Health · doi:10.1093/pubmed/fdae050 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Niveau und Determinanten politischen Wissens
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Social media narratives can influence vaccine intentions: The impact of depicting regret and character death
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Research note: Lies and presidential debates: How political misinformation spread across media streams during the 2020 election
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Digital false information at scale in the European Union: Current state of research in various disciplines, and future directions
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Authors: Jerit, J., & Zhao, Y.
Affiliations: Stony Brook University (US)
ORCID: Jerit, Jennifer
Venue: Annual Review of Political Science
Publisher: Annual Reviews
Published: 2020-05-11
Volume: 23
Issue: 1
Pages: 77-94
ISSN: 1094-2939 (ISSN-L)
1545-1577
DOI: 10.1146/annurev-polisci-050718-032814
OpenAlex: W4249407388
Cited by: 263
References: 102
Citations by year: 2026: 36 · 2025: 41 · 2024: 64 · 2023: 36 · 2022: 43 · 2021: 33 · 2020: 8 · 2019: 2
FWCI: 5.27
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: hybrid
doi.org
Licence: cc-by
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ (unspecified)
Locations: Annual Review of Political Science (publishedVersion, cc-by)
Funders: University of Houston
Topics: Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Misinformation and Its Impacts
Social Sciences › Political Science and International Relations › Electoral Systems and Political Participation
Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Media Influence and Politics
Keywords: political misinformation, factual beliefs, belief confidence, misinformation correction, representative democracy, American politics

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Political Misinformation

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