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Cited by 1School Choice and PerformanceEarly Childhood Education and DevelopmentEducation during COVID-19 pandemic

PROTOCOL: Single-track year-round education for improving academic achievement in us k-12 schools: results of a meta-analysis

Open access
Fitzpatrick, Dan, Burns, Jason·2018·Campbell Systematic Reviews: Better Evidence for a Better World
DOI 10.1002/cl2.194PMC PMC8427981
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Abstract

Summer learning loss is a prominent concern in academic and public discussions of education. Summer learning loss refers to the fact that students forget material and show measurably decreased competency at the beginning of one school year than at the end of the preceding year. Concerns focus on not only what students forget over summer vacation, but also on the time that must be spent reviewing previously-taught material at the beginning of each school year. Overall, summer learning loss is worse in math than in reading (Cooper, Nye, Charlton, Lindsay, & Greathouse, 1996), likely because students read but do not do math during the summer. Cooper et al.'s (1996) meta-analytic estimate was that achievement declines by about one month of learning (.16 standard deviations in math and .11 in reading) during summer. Summer learning loss appears to be worse for disadvantaged students. Research has documented that low-income students lose ground to higher-SES students during summer months when they cannot access school resources (Burkam, Ready, Lee, & LoGerfo 2004; Entwisle, Alexander, & Olson, 2001). The magnitude of this loss relative to their more-advantaged peers is substantial: low-income students lose as much as three months of learning in reading over the summer (Von Drehle, 2010). Summer learning loss among low-income students may account for as much as two-thirds of the income-based achievement gap (Alexander, Entwisle, & Olson, 2007). The documented losses for disadvantaged students are consistent with research on differences in summer resources and opportunities. Low-income students typically attend lower-performing schools than their wealthier counterparts, but the resource differential in summer may be even greater (Downey, von Hippel, & Broh, 2004). During summer, less affluent children watch more television, converse less with parents, and benefit from less daily parental involvement than wealthier students (Gershenson, 2013). Wealthier students, in contrast, are more likely to engage in more stimulating activities, like taking lessons, visiting libraries, and attending museums, than less affluent students (Alexander et al., 2007). Year-round education is seen as a way to combat summer learning loss by shortening or eliminating the long summer vacation. Year-round education refers to the policy intervention of shortening summer break (and increasing the frequency and/or length of shorter breaks during the school year) in order to distribute instructional time more evenly throughout the year, while retaining the standard 180 instructional days. The National Association for Year-Round Education (NAYRE) defines YRE by saying that it provides “more continuous learning by breaking up the long summer vacation into shorter, more frequent vacations throughout the year…The year-round calendar is organized into instructional periods and vacation weeks that are more evenly balanced across 12 months than the traditional school calendar” (NAYRE, n.d.). One common calendar example alternates 45 instructional days (9 weeks) with 10 days (2 weeks) of vacation; this allocation of time is called a 45–10 calendar, and results in a summer vacation of around 6 weeks instead of 10 or more. Year-round education is sometimes conflated with other calendar and instructional reforms, so it is worth delineating how it is distinct from seemingly similar policies. YRE is distinct from a reform that is typically called extended year, which consists of adding days to the standard American school year of 180 days. YRE also does not refer to after-school programming, tutoring, summer school for remediation, other summer programming, or lengthening the number of instructional hours in each school day. It refers exclusively to re-allocating the 180 instructional days more evenly throughout the year. Single-track YRE calendars can differ from each other on two important axes. Single-track YRE can be implemented in a variety of calendar structures—whether a calendar has 30 days of instruction followed by 5 of vacation (called 30–5), 45 days of instruction followed by 10 of vacation (45–10), 45–15, 60–20, or another alternative—which could moderate the impact of the calendar type on student achievement. Single-track YRE calendars can also differ in the number of weeks to which summer vacation is shortened. Schools shorten their summer from the traditional 10 weeks to lengths ranging from 5 to 8 weeks; given the concern about summer learning loss, it would not be surprising for those lengths to moderate the effectiveness of single-track YRE. The logic of year-round education is fairly simple: if there are fewer weeks for students to forget material, then they will forget less during the summer, need to spend fewer weeks on review, and make more progress in the following year. The thinking of advocates is that the more-frequent short breaks (e.g. of two weeks, in a 45–10 calendar structure) are not long enough to engender learning loss in

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This is a Campbell Collaboration protocol (not a completed review) for a planned meta-analysis of single-track year-round education (YRE) and its effects on math and reading achievement in U.S. K–12 schools. It specifies the rationale, inclusion criteria, search strategy, and analytic plan, but reports no synthesized results.

Key findings

  • No meta-analytic results are reported; the document is a protocol. The stated objectives are to estimate the effect of single-track YRE on math and reading achievement, to estimate effects for low-income and minority students separately, and to relate calendar characteristics (structure, length of the longest remaining break) to effect size.
  • Background evidence cited: summer learning loss averages about one month of learning (.16 SD in math and .11 in reading; Cooper et al., 1996); low-income students may lose as much as three months of reading learning over summer (Von Drehle, 2010), and summer loss may account for as much as two-thirds of the income-based achievement gap (Alexander et al., 2007).
  • Prior meta-analyses cited: Kneese (1996) found positive effects of +0.11 to +0.2 SD; Cooper et al. (2003) found an overall effect of +0.06, +0.11 for studies with statistical or matching controls, +0.16 for single-track YRE, and −0.01 (±.05) for multi-track YRE.
  • The protocol argues single- and multi-track YRE should not be pooled, since multi-track is typically implemented for overcrowding and may have negative effects (Graves, 2010; Graves et al., 2013).

Methods

  • Design: planned meta-analysis restricted to single-track YRE; includes studies comparing traditional-calendar schools with single-track year-round schools using any comparison approach (matched school- or student-level characteristics, geographic proximity, multivariate/OLS with controls). Pre/post comparisons are excluded, but cohort-comparison studies will be examined in a sensitivity analysis.
  • Sample/scope: U.S. K–12 studies dated 2001–2016, excluding multi-track YRE, extended instructional time, special education students, and qualitative research; outcomes are math and reading achievement scores, with subgroup analyses for low-SES and minority students where data permit.
  • Analysis: Cohen's d effect sizes (Hedges' g small-sample correction deemed unlikely to be needed since samples are over 100 and none under 50), inverse-variance weighted average with one estimate per study, Q-statistics for heterogeneity, and both fixed- and random-effects estimates reported; publication bias assessed partly by consulting dissertations as primary documents.

Limitations

  • Stated by the paper: no experimental studies are expected; the final sample is likely small, which the authors note makes multivariate meta-analysis, three-level meta-analysis, and meta-regression inappropriate, and may not meet the assumptions of a random-effects model. Data extraction will be done by a single reviewer, and some studies may lack the data needed to compute effect sizes (reported only as direction and significance). Formal bias categorization is described as likely inappropriate given the observational nature of the evidence.
  • Evident from the text: because this is a protocol, none of the planned estimates, heterogeneity statistics, or subgroup findings are yet available, so no conclusions about the effectiveness of single-track YRE can be drawn from this document.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1002/cl2.194

Cites

88 of 89 references verified1 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 22 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingcitation

    Multivariate meta-analysis requires within-study correlation statistics which are not available in any initially-identified studies.

    “Multivariate meta‐analysis is the most common approach for addressing dependence among estimates (see Gleser & Olkin, 2009; Hedges & Olkin, 1985; Raudenbush, Becker, & Kalaian, 1988), but it requires within‐study correlation statistics (Becker, Hedges, & Pigott, 2004; Jackson, Riley, & White, 2011) which are not available for which are not available in any initially‐identified studies.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Gleser & Olkin, 2009

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Hedges & Olkin, 1985 source
    • cites Raudenbush, Becker, & Kalaian, 1988 source
  • Premisecitation

    Kneese (1996) found a positive effect of year-round education on achievement varying from +0.11 to +0.2 standard deviations depending on the exact model and analysis used.

    “Kneese (1996) included both studies with comparison groups and pre/post studies, and found a positive effect on achievement varying from +0.11 to +0.2 standard deviations depending on the exact model and analysis used.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Kneese (1996)
  • Interpretationcitation

    Single-track YRE is an academic intervention previously shown to have a modest but significant effect.

    “As a result, the current study excludes multi‐track YRE and focuses only on single‐track YRE, because it is an academic intervention previously shown to have a modest but significant effect.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Single-track YRE is usually implemented as an academic reform to improve student achievement.
  • Premisecitation

    Individual studies that examined both single- and multi-track YRE found that single-track schools showed larger performance gains.

    “Individual studies that examined both single‐ and multi‐track YRE have found that single‐track schools showed larger performance gains (e.g., White & Cantrell, 2001).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites White & Cantrell, 2001

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Premisecitation

    Summer learning loss among low-income students may account for as much as two-thirds of the income-based achievement gap.

    “Summer learning loss among low‐income students may account for as much as two‐thirds of the income‐based achievement gap (Alexander, Entwisle, & Olson, 2007).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Alexander, Entwisle, & Olson, 2007 source
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 9
  • May combine two claims. 6

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Preliminary searching indicates that most samples are over 100 and none are under 50, so the small-sample correction is not likely to be needed.

    “Preliminary searching indicates that most samples are over 100 and none are under 50, so the small‐sample correction (to use Hedges' g) is not likely to be needed (Hedges, 1981).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Hedges, 1981 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Study design and conductnone given

    The restriction to the United States will avoid introducing the confounding variable of number of school days.

    “The restriction to the United States will avoid introducing the confounding variable of number of school days.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Kneese stated that single-track calendars appeared to have a larger effect than multi-track calendars.

    “Kneese also stated that single‐track calendars appeared to have a larger effect than multi‐track calendars.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Kneese

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    During summer, less affluent children watch more television, converse less with parents, and benefit from less daily parental involvement than wealthier students.

    “During summer, less affluent children watch more television, converse less with parents, and benefit from less daily parental involvement than wealthier students (Gershenson, 2013).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Gershenson, 2013 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Cooper et al. (2003) found multi-track YRE had an effect size of −0.01 (±.05) and single-track YRE had an effect size of +0.16 in fixed-effects unadjusted analyses.

    “Cooper et al. (2003) disaggregated by calendar type, and in their fixed‐effects unadjusted analyses found that, although multi‐track YRE had an effect size of just −0.01 (±.05), single‐track YRE had an effect size of +0.16.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Cooper et al. (2003) source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Distributing vacations and schooling more evenly throughout the year would allow students' year-over-year academic progress to increase, with no additional days of teaching.

    “If correct, distributing vacations and schooling more evenly throughout the year would allow for students' year‐over‐year academic progress to increase, with no additional days of teaching.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductreasoning

    The meta-analysis will conduct at least one sensitivity analysis to assess differences in findings based on matching approach used.

    “I will also conduct at least one sensitivity analysis to inform my conclusions around bias based on study design; assessing whether there are differences in findings based on matching approach used (which appears to be the primary distinguishing point in study design in single‐track YRE).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductreasoning

    The meta-analysis will assess publication bias.

    “I will assess publication bias.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Low-income students typically attend lower-performing schools than wealthier students, but the resource differential in summer may be even greater.

    “Low‐income students typically attend lower‐performing schools than their wealthier counterparts, but the resource differential in summer may be even greater (Downey, von Hippel, & Broh, 2004).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Downey, von Hippel, & Broh, 2004 source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    Excluding studies of extended instructional time is necessary because otherwise it would not be possible to identify what share of a change in student performance was due to a year-round calendar and what share was due to additional days of instruction.

    “However, it would not be possible to identify what share of a change in student performance was due to a year‐round calendar (i.e. the elimination of summer learning loss) and what share was due to additional days of instruction.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: It is not infrequent for schools or school districts to make multiple changes at once.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Cooper et al. (2003) found an overall effect size of +0.06 for year-round education, but +0.11 for studies that used statistical or matching controls.

    “Cooper, Valentine, Charlton, and Melson (2003) included only studies with comparison groups, and found an overall effect size of +0.06, but +0.11 for studies that used statistical or matching controls.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Cooper, Valentine, Charlton, and Melson (2003) source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    The meta-analysis will include only studies with a comparison group.

    “In general, I will apply an exclusion criteria that studies must include a comparison group; and this will exclude comparisons made to prior performance at the same school(s).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductreasoning

    A second researcher will code 10-25% of search results and 10-25% of full-text downloads to assess whether reliability is at least 90%.

    “In order to ensure that coding is being done well, a second researcher will code 10–25% of search results and 10–25% of full‐text downloads, to assess if reliability (both on studies to download and studies to include in final sample) is at least 90%.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
13 of 13

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The literature on YRE does not in general include effect sizes that are statistically dependent.

    “The literature on YRE does not in general include effect sizes that are statistically dependent.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Many single-track YRE evaluations are initially written as dissertations.

    “Many single‐track YRE evaluations are initially written as dissertation.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Single-track YRE is usually implemented as an academic reform to improve student achievement.

    “Single‐track YRE is usually implemented as an academic reform to improve student achievement.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Multi-track YRE is typically implemented in response to over-crowding when there is no funding available for additional classroom space.

    “In contrast, multi‐track YRE is typically implemented in response to over‐crowding when there is no funding available for additional classroom space.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Since 2001, in the NCLB and post-NCLB era, schooling in America has experienced shifts and interventions that may have introduced systemic differences in the effect of YRE.

    “Since 2001, in the NCLB and post‐NCLB era, schooling in America has experienced a broad array of shifts and interventions. These may have introduced systemic differences in the effect of YRE.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    It is not infrequent for schools or school districts to make multiple changes at once.

    “It is not infrequent for schools or school districts to make multiple changes at once.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The final sample is likely to be small.

    “For a meta‐analysis of single‐track YRE, the final sample is likely to be small, but to include studies from various states during the16 years examined.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    There are unlikely to be sufficient estimates in the final sample for a three-level model to be appropriate.

    “Three‐level meta‐analysis may be able to account for hierarchically structured effect size estimates (Konstantopoulos, 2011), but there are unlikely to be sufficient estimates in this final sample for a three‐level model to be appropriate.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The final sample will not be large enough to meet the assumptions of representativeness undergirding a random effects model.

    “However, even if (as current analysis indicates) the heterogeneity present in the estimates would normally point toward using random effects analysis, it is unlikely that the final sample will be large enough to meet the other assumptions of representativeness undergirding a random effects model.”
9 of 9

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Citation year conflicts with reference list

    Minor

    The methods section cites Raudenbush, Becker, and Kalaian as a 1988 work, but the corresponding reference lists 1998.

1 of 1

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 1

  1. Von Drehle D. (2010, August 02). The case against summer vacation. Time, 176, 1.

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Fitzpatrick, D., & Burns, J.
ORCID
Venue
Campbell Systematic Reviews: Better Evidence for a Better World
Publisher
SAGE Publications
Published
2018-06
Volume
14
Issue
1
Pages
1-15
ISSN
1891-1803 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1002/cl2.194
PMC
PMC8427981
OpenAlex
W2957906412
Semantic Scholar
006f1e5e4334f47aeb4e129e2615eb4907927389
Cited by
1
References
88
Citations by year
2019: 1
FWCI
0.12
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Campbell Systematic Reviews (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed Central (submittedVersion, cc-by)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Education › School Choice and Performance
  • Social Sciences › Education › Early Childhood Education and Development
  • Social Sciences › Education › Education during COVID-19 pandemic
Keywords
summer learning loss, academic performance, K-12 schools, low-income students, achievement gap, summer vacation, school calendar reform, parental involvement, reading and math achievement, disadvantaged students, school finance, school choice

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