Lasting Consequences of the Summer Learning Gap

Alexander, Karl L.; Entwisle, Doris R.; Olson, Linda Steffel

doi:10.1177/000312240707200202

Cited by 766School Choice and PerformanceIntergenerational and Educational Inequality StudiesParental Involvement in Education

Lasting Consequences of the Summer Learning Gap

Alexander, Karl L., Entwisle, Doris R., Olson, Linda Steffel·2007·American Sociological Review

DOI 10.1177/000312240707200202

Open this paper in CoChat — free account

Abstract

Prior research has demonstrated that summer learning rooted in family and community influences widens the achievement gap across social lines, while schooling offsets those family and community influences. In this article, we examine the long-term educational consequences of summer learning differences by family socioeconomic level. Using data from the Baltimore Beginning School Study youth panel, we decompose achievement scores at the start of high school into their developmental precursors, back to the time of school entry in 1st grade. We find that cumulative achievement gains over the first nine years of children's schooling mainly reflect school-year learning, whereas the high SES-low SES achievement gap at 9th grade mainly traces to differential summer learning over the elementary years. These early out-of-school summer learning differences, in turn, substantially account for achievement-related differences by family SES in high school track placements (college preparatory or not), high school noncompletion, and four-year college attendance. We discuss implications for understanding the bases of educational stratification, as well as educational policy and practice.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1177/000312240707200202

Cites

58 of 58 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Recomputing p-values needs the paper’s full text.

Claims the paper makes

This paper’s full text isn’t openly available, so its claims and self-check weren’t run. The registry and citation checks still apply.

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

Summer learning loss among low-income students may account for as much as two-thirds of the income-based achievement gap.
“Summer learning loss among low‐income students may account for as much as two‐thirds of the income‐based achievement gap (Alexander, Entwisle, & Olson, 2007).”
From PROTOCOL: Single-track year-round education for improving academic achievement in us k-12 schools: results of a meta-analysis (2018) · cites this paper as Alexander, Entwisle, & Olson, 2007
Wealthier students are more likely to engage in stimulating activities like taking lessons, visiting libraries, and attending museums than less affluent students.
“Wealthier students, in contrast, are more likely to engage in more stimulating activities, like taking lessons, visiting libraries, and attending museums, than less affluent students (Alexander et al., 2007).”
From PROTOCOL: Single-track year-round education for improving academic achievement in us k-12 schools: results of a meta-analysis (2018) · cites this paper as Alexander et al., 2007

EQUALITY OF EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITY
Coleman, J. S. (1968) · Equity & Excellence in Education · doi:10.1080/0020486680060504 · Cited by 5,326 · see citing works
Equality of Educational Opportunity.
Havighurst, R., Coleman, J., Campbell, E. Q., Hobson, C. J., McPartland, J. C., Mood, A., Weinfeld, F. D., & York, R. (1967) · Journal of the American Statistical Association · doi:10.2307/2283696 · Cited by 4,655 · see citing works
Meaningful Differences in the Everyday Experience of Young American Children
Panagos, R. J. (1998) · Remedial and Special Education · doi:10.1177/074193259801900609 · Cited by 4,183 · see citing works
Meaningful Differences in the Everyday Experience of Young American Children
(1996) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.33-3435 · Cited by 4,103 · see citing works
Savage Inequalities: Children in America's Schools.
Sadovnik, A. R., & Kozol, J. (1992) · Contemporary Sociology A Journal of Reviews · doi:10.2307/2076291 · Cited by 2,860 · see citing works
Equality of Educational Opportunity.
Sewell, W. H., Coleman, J. S., Campbell, E. Q., Hobson, C. J., McPartland, J. C., Mood, A. M., Weinfeld, F. D., & York, R. L. (1967) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.2307/2091094 · Cited by 2,753 · see citing works
Multiple Imputation of Missing Values
Royston, P. (2004) · The Stata Journal: Promoting communications on statistics and Stata · doi:10.1177/1536867x0400400301 · Cited by 2,340 · see citing works
Missing Data
Allison, P. (2002) · doi:10.4135/9781412985079 · Cited by 2,050 · see citing works
National Center for Educational Statistics
Culpepper, J. C. (2007) · Reference Reviews · doi:10.1108/09504120710838778 · Cited by 2,039 · see citing works
The Black-White Test Score Gap
Jencks, C., & Phillips, M. (2011) · Rowman & Littlefield Publishers eBooks · doi:10.5771/9780815746119 · Cited by 1,718 · see citing works
Multiple Imputation of Missing Values: Update
Royston, P. (2005) · The Stata Journal Promoting communications on statistics and Stata · doi:10.1177/1536867x0500500204 · Cited by 1,683 · see citing works
The black-white test score gap
(1999) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.36-5211 · Cited by 1,497 · see citing works
The Bell Curve
Murray, C. A., & Herrnstein, R. J. (1994) · Cited by 1,383 · see citing works
The Manufactured Crisis: Myths, Fraud, and the Attack on America's Public Schools
Berliner, D. C., & Biddle, B. J. (1996) · NASSP Bulletin · doi:10.1177/019263659608057619 · Cited by 1,029 · see citing works
Inequality at the Starting Gate: Social Background Differences in Achievement as Children Begin School
Lee, V. E., & Burkam, D. T. (2002) · Cited by 1,029 · see citing works
The Effects of Summer Vacation on Achievement Test Scores: A Narrative and Meta-Analytic Review
Cooper, H., Nye, B., Charlton, K., Lindsay, J., & Greathouse, S. (1996) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/00346543066003227 · Cited by 991 · see citing works
Are Schools the Great Equalizer? Cognitive Inequality during the Summer Months and the School Year
Downey, D. B., von Hippel, P. T., & Broh, B. A. (2004) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.1177/000312240406900501 · Cited by 853 · see citing works
Class and schools: using social, economic, and educational reform to close the black-white achievement gap
(2005) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.43-0465 · Cited by 697 · see citing works
Racial and Ethnic Achievement Gap Trends: Reversing the Progress Toward Equity?
Lee, J. (2002) · Educational Researcher · doi:10.3102/0013189x031001003 · Cited by 630 · see citing works
Schools, Achievement, and Inequality: A Seasonal Perspective
Alexander, K. L., Entwisle, D. R., & Olson, L. S. (2001) · Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis · doi:10.3102/01623737023002171 · Cited by 575 · see citing works
Self-citation
Savage Inequalities: Children in Americas Schools
Coleman, S. J. (1992) · Journal of Education · doi:10.1177/002205749217400311 · Cited by 539 · see citing works
Summer learning and the effects of schooling
Collins, R., & Heyns, B. (1978) · Social Forces · doi:10.2307/2578200 · Cited by 522 · see citing works
Children, schools, and inequality
(1998) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.35-3989 · Cited by 494 · see citing works
The Impact of School Resources on the Learning of Inner City Children.
Rosenbaum, J., & Murnane, R. (1976) · Contemporary Sociology A Journal of Reviews · doi:10.2307/2063323 · Cited by 470 · see citing works
Our Impoverished View of Educational Research
Berliner, D. C. (2006) · Teachers College Record The Voice of Scholarship in Education · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9620.2006.00682.x · Cited by 455 · see citing works
The detailed age trajectory of oral vocabulary knowledge: differences by class and race
Farkas, G., & Beron, K. J. (2003) · Social Science Research · doi:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2003.08.001 · Cited by 438 · see citing works
Social Reproduction and Child-rearing Practices: Social Class, Children's Agency, and the Summer Activity Gap
Chin, T., & Phillips, M. (2004) · Sociology of Education · doi:10.1177/003804070407700301 · Cited by 368 · see citing works
The Impact of School Resources on the Learning of Inner City Children
Maynard, R. A., & Murnane, R. J. (1977) · The Journal of Human Resources · doi:10.2307/145606 · Cited by 365 · see citing works
Making the most of summer school: a meta-analytic and narrative review.
Cooper, H., Charlton, K., Valentine, J. C., & Muhlenbruck, L. (2000) · PubMed · Cited by 317 · see citing works
The Rhetoric and Reality of Gap Closing: When the "Have-Nots" Gain but the "Haves" Gain Even More.
Ceci, S. J., & Papierno, P. B. (2005) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.60.2.149 · Cited by 311 · see citing works
Decomposing Differences between Groups
Jones, F. L., & Kelley, J. (1984) · Sociological Methods & Research · doi:10.1177/0049124184012003004 · Cited by 281 · see citing works
Does the Black–White test score gap widen after children enter school?
Phillips, M., Crouse, J. H., & Ralph, J. A. (1998) · Cited by 256 · see citing works
The Manufactured Crisis: Myths, Fraud and the Attack on America's Public Schools
Berliner, D. C., & Biddle, B. J. (1996) · College Composition and Communication · doi:10.2307/358281 · Cited by 244 · see citing works
California Achievement Tests
Korstange, G. (1988) · The English Journal · doi:10.2307/818631 · Cited by 241 · see citing works
Social-Class Differences in Summer Learning Between Kindergarten and First Grade: Model Specification and Estimation
Burkam, D. T., Ready, D. D., Lee, V. E., & LoGerfo, L. F. (2004) · Sociology of Education · doi:10.1177/003804070407700101 · Cited by 232 · see citing works
Extended Early Childhood Intervention and School Achievement: Age Thirteen Findings from the Chicago Longitudinal Study
Reynolds, A. J., & Temple, J. A. (1998) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1998.tb06145.x · Cited by 210 · see citing works
The failure of market failure
Zerbe, R. O., & McCurdy, H. E. (1999) · Journal of Policy Analysis and Management · doi:10.1002/(sici)1520-6688(199923)18:4 · Cited by 193 · see citing works
Are “Failing” Schools Really Failing? Using Seasonal Comparison to Evaluate School Effectiveness
Downey, D. B., von Hippel, P. T., & Hughes, M. M. (2008) · Sociology of Education · doi:10.1177/003804070808100302 · Cited by 174 · see citing works
Student Achievement and the Changing American Family
Grissmer, D. W., Kirby, S. N., Berends, M., & Williamson, S. L. (1995) · Cited by 173 · see citing works
Education, Cognitive Skill, and Labor Force Outcomes
Kerckhoff, A. C., Raudenbush, S. W., & Glennie, E. J. (2001) · Sociology of Education · doi:10.2307/2673142 · Cited by 172 · see citing works
Schooling and cognitive development: Is there a season for learning?
Heyns, B. (1987) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1987.tb01448.x · Cited by 164 · see citing works
Longitudinal Achievement Effects of Multiyear Summer School: Evidence From the Teach Baltimore Randomized Field Trial
Borman, G. D., & Dowling, N. M. (2006) · Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis · doi:10.3102/01623737028001025 · Cited by 135 · see citing works
Standardization and Component Analysis
Althauser, R. P., & Wigler, M. H. (1972) · Sociological Methods & Research · doi:10.1177/004912417200100105 · Cited by 120 · see citing works
Social Programs that Work
Hagedorn, J. M., & Crane, J. (1999) · Contemporary Sociology A Journal of Reviews · doi:10.2307/2654152 · Cited by 110 · see citing works
Social Structure and Behavior: Essays in Honor of William Hamilton Sewell.
Marsden, P. V., Hauser, R. M., Mechanic, D., Haller, A. O., & Hauser, T. S. (1984) · Social Forces · doi:10.2307/2578571 · Cited by 108 · see citing works
The Kindergarten Year: Findings from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten Class of 1998-99. NCES 2001-023.
West, J., Denton, K., & Reaney, L. M. (2000) · National Center for Education Statistics · Cited by 102 · see citing works
A Revised Socioeconomic Index of Occupational Status: Application in Analysis of Sex Differences in Attainment
Featherman, D. L., & Stevens, G. (1982) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-333060-4.50014-0 · Cited by 95 · see citing works
Decomposition of Differences
Iams, H. M., & Thornton, A. (1975) · Sociological Methods & Research · doi:10.1177/004912417500300306 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
Summer Learning: Research, Policies, and Programs
Weiss, J., & Brown, R. H. (2005) · Teachers College Record The Voice of Scholarship in Education · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Year-Round Schooling as an Avenue to Major Structural Reform
Gándara, P. C., & Fish, J. (1994) · Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis · doi:10.3102/01623737016001067 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Summer Learning
(2004) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781410610362 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Opportunity-to-Learn Standards: A Sociological Critique
Dougherty, K. J. (1996) · Sociology of Education · doi:10.2307/3108455 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Public Schools and the Public Good
Alexander, K. L. (1997) · Social Forces · doi:10.1093/sf/76.1.1 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Self-citation
Is the School Calendar Dated? Education, Economics, and the Politics of Time
Cooper, H. M. (2004) · doi:10.4324/9781410610362-7 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
The Bell Curve
Hauser, R. M., Herrnstein, R. J., & Murray, C. A. (1995) · Contemporary Sociology A Journal of Reviews · doi:10.2307/2076829 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Predicting Achievement in Grades Three Through Ten Using the Metropolitan Readiness Test
Weller, L. D., Schnittjer, C. J., & Tuten, B. A. (1992) · Journal of Research in Childhood Education · doi:10.1080/02568549209594829 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Year-round schooling
Shields, C. M. (2000) · Cited by 15 · see citing works
A Multiphasic Reading Screening Procedure
Pope, J., Lehrer, B. E., & Stevens, J. (1980) · Journal of Learning Disabilities · doi:10.1177/002221948001300209 · Cited by 11 · see citing works

Flagged first, then by citations

1 of the 59 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.

Sorted by citations

COVID-19, school closures, and child poverty: a social crisis in the making
Lancker, W. V., & Parolin, Z. (2020) · The Lancet Public Health · doi:10.1016/s2468-2667(20)30084-0 · Cited by 1,433 · see citing works
To read or not to read: a meta-analysis of print exposure from infancy to early adulthood
Mol, S. E., & Bus, A. G. (2011) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/a0021890 · Cited by 1,299 · see citing works
PISA 2012 Assessment and Analytical Framework
OECD (2013) · Programme for international student assessment/Internationale Schulleistungsstudie · doi:10.1787/9789264190511-en · Cited by 815 · see citing works
THE LEGACY OF DISADVANTAGE: MULTIGENERATIONAL NEIGHBORHOOD EFFECTS ON COGNITIVE ABILITY
Sharkey, P., & Elwert, F. (2011) · American Journal of Sociology · doi:10.1086/660009 · Cited by 408 · see citing works
The Widening Income Achievement Gap.
Reardon, S. F. (2013) · Educational leadership · Cited by 369 · see citing works
Why Students Drop Out of School: A Review of 25 Years of Research
Lim, S. A., & Rumberger, R. W. (2008) · Issue Lab (Candid) · Cited by 418 · see citing works
Why lockdown and distance learning during the COVID-19 pandemic are likely to increase the social class achievement gap
Goudeau, S., Sanrey, C., Stanczak, A., Manstead, A. S. R., & Darnon, C. (2021) · Nature Human Behaviour · doi:10.1038/s41562-021-01212-7 · Cited by 286 · see citing works
The economic impacts of learning losses
(2020) · OECD Education Working Papers · doi:10.1787/21908d74-en · Cited by 409 · see citing works
PISA 2009 Results: Overcoming Social Background
OECD (2010) · Programme for international student assessment/Internationale Schulleistungsstudie · doi:10.1787/9789264091504-en · Cited by 320 · see citing works
Student Eligibility for a Free Lunch as an SES Measure in Education Research
Harwell, M. R., & LeBeau, B. C. (2010) · Educational Researcher · doi:10.3102/0013189x10362578 · Cited by 317 · see citing works
Fifty Years since the Coleman Report
Downey, D. B., & Condron, D. J. (2016) · Sociology of Education · doi:10.1177/0038040716651676 · Cited by 292 · see citing works
Low-Income Students and the Socioeconomic Composition of Public High Schools
Crosnoe, R. L. (2009) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.1177/000312240907400502 · Cited by 283 · see citing works
Examining the Black–White Achievement Gap Among Low-Income Children Using the NICHD Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development
Burchinal, M., McCartney, K., Steinberg, L. D., Crosnoe, R. L., Friedman, S. L., McLoyd, V. C., & Pianta, R. C. (2011) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2011.01620.x · Cited by 267 · see citing works
Students’ perceptions of STEM learning after participating in a summer informal learning experience
Roberts, T., Jackson, C. D., Mohr‐Schroeder, M. J., Bush, S. B., Maiorca, C., Cavalcanti, M., Schroeder, D. C., Delaney, A., Putnam, L., & Cremeans, C. (2018) · International Journal of STEM Education · doi:10.1186/s40594-018-0133-4 · Cited by 278 · see citing works
A conceptual framework for early adolescence: a platform for research
Blum, R. W., Astone, N. M., Decker, M. R., & Mouli, V. C. (2014) · International Journal of Adolescent Medicine and Health · doi:10.1515/ijamh-2013-0327 · Cited by 262 · see citing works
Income Inequality and Class Divides in Parental Investments
Schneider, D., Hastings, O. P., & LaBriola, J. (2018) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.1177/0003122418772034 · Cited by 262 · see citing works
Research on Adolescence in the Twenty-First Century
Crosnoe, R. L., & Johnson, M. K. (2011) · Annual Review of Sociology · doi:10.1146/annurev-soc-081309-150008 · Cited by 260 · see citing works
Addressing Summer Reading Setback Among Economically Disadvantaged Elementary Students
Allington, R. L., McGill-Franzen, A., Camilli, G., Williams, L., Graff, J., Zeig, J., Zmach, C., & Nowak, R. (2010) · Reading Psychology · doi:10.1080/02702711.2010.505165 · Cited by 256 · see citing works
School Composition and Contextual Effects on Student Outcomes
Willms, J. D. (2010) · Teachers College Record The Voice of Scholarship in Education · doi:10.1177/016146811011200408 · Cited by 249 · see citing works
Insights on Adolescence From a Life Course Perspective
Johnson, M. K., Crosnoe, R. L., & Elder, G. H. (2011) · Journal of Research on Adolescence · doi:10.1111/j.1532-7795.2010.00728.x · Cited by 236 · see citing works
Child Development During the COVID-19 Pandemic Through a Life Course Theory Lens
Benner, A. D., & Mistry, R. S. (2020) · Child Development Perspectives · doi:10.1111/cdep.12387 · Cited by 242 · see citing works
Mitigating the effect of family poverty on academic and behavioral outcomes: The role of school climate in middle and high school
Hopson, L. M., & Lee, E. (2011) · Children and Youth Services Review · doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2011.07.006 · Cited by 236 · see citing works
Poverty and Potential: Out-of-School Factors and School Success.
Berliner, D. C. (2009) · CU Scholar (University of Colorado Boulder) · Cited by 231 · see citing works
Harming the Best: How Schools Affect the Black-White Achievement Gap
Hanushek, E. A., & Rivkin, S. G. (2008) · Journal of Policy Analysis and Management · doi:10.1002/pam.20437 · Cited by 227 · see citing works
Priorities in social categories
Kinzler, K. D., Shutts, K., & Correll, J. (2010) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.739 · Cited by 212 · see citing works
Social Class, School and Non-School Environments, and Black/White Inequalities in Children's Learning
Condron, D. J. (2009) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.1177/000312240907400501 · Cited by 205 · see citing works
Inequality in homeschooling during the Corona crisis in the Netherlands. First results from the LISS Panel.
Bol, T. (2020) · doi:10.31235/osf.io/hf32q · Cited by 193 · see citing works
Capital at Home and at School: A Review and Synthesis
Parcel, T. L., Dufur, M. J., & Zito, R. C. (2010) · Journal of Marriage and the Family · doi:10.1111/j.1741-3737.2010.00733.x · Cited by 192 · see citing works
Creating a Comprehensive System for Evaluating and Supporting Effective Teaching.
Darling‐Hammond, L. (2012) · Cited by 178 · see citing works
Socioeconomic Status and Academic Outcomes in Developing Countries: A Meta-Analysis
Kim, S. W., Cho, H., & Kim, L. Y. (2019) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/0034654319877155 · Cited by 175 · see citing works
Does Schooling Increase or Reduce Social Inequality?
Raudenbush, S. W., & Eschmann, R. (2015) · Annual Review of Sociology · doi:10.1146/annurev-soc-071913-043406 · Cited by 167 · see citing works
Schooling effects on preschoolers’ self-regulation, early literacy, and language growth
Skibbe, L. E., Connor, C. M., Morrison, F. J., & Jewkes, A. M. (2010) · Early Childhood Research Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2010.05.001 · Cited by 159 · see citing works
Economically Disadvantaged Children’s Transitions Into Elementary School
Crosnoe, R. L., & Cooper, C. E. (2009) · American Educational Research Journal · doi:10.3102/0002831209351564 · Cited by 153 · see citing works
At the boundary of school: Continuity and discontinuity in learning across contexts
Bronkhorst, L. H., & Akkerman, S. F. (2016) · Educational Research Review · doi:10.1016/j.edurev.2016.04.001 · Cited by 155 · see citing works
Decreasing the SES math achievement gap: Initial math proficiency and home learning environments
Galindo, C., & Sonnenschein, S. (2015) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.08.003 · Cited by 142 · see citing works
Remote or Removed: Predicting Successful Engagement with Online Learning during COVID-19
Domina, T., Renzulli, L. A., Murray, B., Garza, A. N., & Perez, L. (2021) · Socius Sociological Research for a Dynamic World · doi:10.1177/2378023120988200 · Cited by 143 · see citing works
Bourdieu's notion of cultural capital and its implications for the science curriculum
Claussen, S. A., & Osborne, J. F. (2012) · Science Education · doi:10.1002/sce.21040 · Cited by 123 · see citing works
Do test score gaps grow before, during, or between the school years?: Measurement artifacts and what we can know in spite of them
von Hippel, P., & Hamrock, C. (2019) · Sociological Science · doi:10.15195/v6.a3 · Cited by 149 · see citing works
“The SES gap did not grow at all during the school years (Alexander et al. 2007a).”
BackgroundMethod
Socioeconomic Status and Reading Disability: Neuroanatomy and Plasticity in Response to Intervention
Romeo, R. R., Christodoulou, J. A., Halverson, K. K., Murtagh, J., Cyr, A. B., Schimmel, C., Chang, P., Hook, P. E., & Gabrieli, J. D. E. (2017) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhx131 · Cited by 121 · see citing works
Childhood Environment and Gender Gaps in Adulthood
Chetty, R., Hendren, N., Lin, F., Majerovitz, J., & Scuderi, B. (2016) · American Economic Review · doi:10.1257/aer.p20161073 · Cited by 117 · see citing works
Summer learning and its implications: Insights from the Beginning School Study
Alexander, K. L., Entwisle, D. R., & Olson, L. S. (2007) · New Directions for Youth Development · doi:10.1002/yd.210 · Cited by 108 · see citing works
Self-citation
Effects of Cram Schooling on Mathematics Performance: Evidence from Junior High Students in Taiwan
Kuan, P. (2011) · Comparative Education Review · doi:10.1086/659142 · Cited by 107 · see citing works
Seasonal Dynamics of Academic Achievement Inequality by Socioeconomic Status and Race/Ethnicity
Quinn, D. M., Cooc, N., McIntyre, J., & Gomez, C. J. (2016) · Educational Researcher · doi:10.3102/0013189x16677965 · Cited by 105 · see citing works
The impact of Pleasure Reading on Academic Success
Whitten, C., Labby, S., & Sullivan, S. (2019) · Cited by 102 · see citing works
Is Separate Still Unequal? New Evidence on School Segregation and Racial Academic Achievement Gaps
Reardon, S. F., Weathers, E. S., Fahle, E. M., Jang, H., & Kalogrides, D. (2024) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.1177/00031224241297263 · Cited by 107 · see citing works
National numeracy review report
Stanley, G. V. (2008) · Cited by 95 · see citing works
Book Deserts: The Consequences of Income Segregation on Children’s Access to Print
Neuman, S. B., & Moland, N. A. (2016) · Urban Education · doi:10.1177/0042085916654525 · Cited by 95 · see citing works
School’s Out: The Role of Summers in Understanding Achievement Disparities
Atteberry, A., & McEachin, A. J. (2020) · American Educational Research Journal · doi:10.3102/0002831220937285 · Cited by 98 · see citing works
Sex Differences in Parenting Behaviors in Single‐Mother and Single‐Father Households
Dufur, M. J., Howell, N. C., Downey, D. B., Ainsworth, J. W., & Lapray, A. J. (2010) · Journal of Marriage and the Family · doi:10.1111/j.1741-3737.2010.00752.x · Cited by 95 · see citing works
Surprising new evidence on summer learning loss
Kuhfeld, M. (2019) · Phi Delta Kappan · doi:10.1177/0031721719871560 · Cited by 93 · see citing works
The Children of China's Great Migration
Murphy, R. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108877251 · Cited by 93 · see citing works
Parent educational investment and children’s general knowledge development
Cheadle, J. E. (2009) · Social Science Research · doi:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2008.12.002 · Cited by 93 · see citing works
Unlocking Emergent Talent: Supporting High Achievement of Low-Income, High Ability Students.
Olszewski‐Kubilius, P., & Clarenbach, J. (2012) · VTechWorks (Virginia Tech) · Cited by 93 · see citing works
Egalitarianism and Educational Excellence
Condron, D. J. (2011) · Educational Researcher · doi:10.3102/0013189x11401021 · Cited by 94 · see citing works
The cost of school holidays for children from low income families
Stewart, H., Watson, N., & Campbell, M. (2018) · Childhood · doi:10.1177/0907568218779130 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
Improving reading outcomes in Kenya: First-year effects of the PRIMR Initiative
Piper, B., Zuilkowski, S. S., & Mugenda, A. G. (2014) · International Journal of Educational Development · doi:10.1016/j.ijedudev.2014.02.006 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
Mothers’ Depression and Educational Attainment and their Children’s Academic Trajectories
Augustine, J. M., & Crosnoe, R. L. (2010) · Journal of Health and Social Behavior · doi:10.1177/0022146510377757 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
Factors Contributing to Adult Knowledge of Science and Technology
Falk, J. H., & Needham, M. D. (2013) · Journal of Research in Science Teaching · doi:10.1002/tea.21080 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
Reading Habits, Socioeconomic Conditions, Occupational Aspiration and Academic Achievement in Vietnamese Junior High School Students
Le, H. T. T., Tran, T., Phuong, T. T. T., Nguyen, C.-T., Nguyen, T.-P.-T., Vuong, T., Vu, T.-H., Bui, D. Q., Vuong, H.-M., Hoang, P.-H., et al. (2019) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su11185113 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
Learning losses and educational inequalities in Europe: Mapping the potential consequences of the COVID-19 crisis
Blaskó, Z., Costa, P. D., & Schnepf, S. V. (2022) · Journal of European Social Policy · doi:10.1177/09589287221091687 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
COVID-19: Protecting people and societies
OECD (2020) · OECD policy responses to coronavirus (Covid-19) · doi:10.1787/e5c9de1a-en · Cited by 85 · see citing works
Social inequality in the homeschooling efforts of German high school students during a school closing period
Dietrich, H. W., Patzina, A., & Lerche, A. (2020) · European Societies · doi:10.1080/14616696.2020.1826556 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
Making Summer Count: How Summer Programs Can Boost Children's Learning
McCombs, J. S., Augustine, C. H., Schwartz, H. L., Bodilly, S. J., McInnis, B. J., Lichter, D. S., & Cross, A. B. (2011) · PsycEXTRA Dataset · doi:10.1037/e525802012-001 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
Knocking the Hustle
Spence, L. K. (2015) · Punctum Books · doi:10.21983/p3.0121.1.00 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
A day at the museum: The impact of field trips on middle school science achievement
Whitesell, E. R. (2016) · Journal of Research in Science Teaching · doi:10.1002/tea.21322 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Continuities and Consistencies Across Home and School Systems
Crosnoe, R. L. (2015) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-16931-6_4 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Family poverty and neighborhood poverty: Links with children's school readiness before and after the Great Recession
Wolf, S., Magnuson, K., & Kimbro, R. T. (2017) · Children and Youth Services Review · doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2017.06.040 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
School readiness losses during the COVID-19 outbreak. A comparison of two cohorts of young children
González, M., Loose, T., Liz, M., Pérez, M., Rodríguez‐Vinçon, J. I., Llerena, C. T., & Vásquez‐Echeverría, A. (2022) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.13738 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
Children at School
Crosnoe, R., & Benner, A. D. (2015) · Handbook of Child Psychology and Developmental Science · doi:10.1002/9781118963418.childpsy407 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
Language proficiency, home-language status, and English vocabulary development: A longitudinal follow-up of the Word Generation program
Lawrence, J. F., Capotosto, L., Branum‐Martin, L., WHITE, C., & Snow, C. E. (2012) · Bilingualism Language and Cognition · doi:10.1017/s1366728911000393 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
School processes mediate school compositional effects: model specification and estimation
Liu, H., Damme, J. V., Gielen, S., & Noortgate, W. V. D. (2014) · British Educational Research Journal · doi:10.1002/berj.3147 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Reading enjoyment amongst non-leisure readers can affect achievement in secondary school
Mol, S. E., & Jolles, J. (2014) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01214 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
Understanding youth STEM interest pathways within a single community: theSynergiesproject
Falk, J. H., Staus, N. L., Dierking, L. D., Penuel, W. R., Wyld, J. N., & Bailey, D. (2015) · International Journal of Science Education Part B · doi:10.1080/21548455.2015.1093670 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
The Covid-19 Pandemic and School Closure: Learning Loss in Mathematics in Primary EducationPreprint
Contini, D., Tommaso, M. L. D., Muratori, C., Piazzalunga, D., & Schiavon, L. (2022) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4114323 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
Educational Opportunity in Early and Middle Childhood: Using Full Population Administrative Data to Study Variation by Place and Age
Reardon, S. F. (2019) · RSF The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences · doi:10.7758/rsf.2019.5.2.03 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
Learning Loss in Vulnerable Student Populations After the First Covid-19 School Closure in the Netherlands
Schuurman, T. M., Henrichs, L. F., Schuurman, N. K., Polderdijk, S., & Hornstra, L. (2021) · Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1080/00313831.2021.2006307 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Genese sozialer Ungleichheit im institutionellen Kontext der Schule: Wo entsteht und vergrößert sich soziale Ungleichheit?
Maaz, K., Baumert, J., & Trautwein, U. (2011) · VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-531-93403-7_5 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
What do parents teach their children? – The effects of parental involvement on student performance in Dutch compulsory education
Cabus, S. J., & Ariës, R. J. F. J. (2016) · Educational Review · doi:10.1080/00131911.2016.1208148 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Intergenerational transmission of lockdown consequences: prognosis of the longer-run persistence of COVID-19 in Latin America
Neidhöfer, G., Lustig, N. C., & Tommasi, M. (2021) · The Journal of Economic Inequality · doi:10.1007/s10888-021-09501-x · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Social Democratic Capitalism
Kenworthy, L. (2019) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190064112.001.0001 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
La ficción de educar a distancia
Rogero‐García, J. (2020) · Revista de Sociología de la Educación-RASE · doi:10.7203/rase.13.2.17126 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
No evidence of a major learning slide 14 months into the COVID-19 pandemic in Denmark
Birkelund, J. F., & Karlson, K. B. (2022) · European Societies · doi:10.1080/14616696.2022.2129085 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Family–school connections and the transitions of low-income youths and english language learners from middle school to high school.
Crosnoe, R. L. (2009) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0016131 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Help-Seeking Behaviors as Cultural Capital: Cultural Guides and the Transition from High School to College among Low-Income First Generation Students
Richards, B. N. (2020) · Social Problems · doi:10.1093/socpro/spaa023 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
COVID‐19 school closures and educational achievement gaps in Canada: Lessons from Ontario summer learning research
Aurini, J., & Davies, S. (2021) · Canadian Review of Sociology/Revue canadienne de sociologie · doi:10.1111/cars.12334 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
Do family investments explain growing socioeconomic disparities in children’s reading, math, and science achievement during school versus summer months?
Coley, R. L., Kruzik, C., & Votruba‐Drzal, E. (2019) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/edu0000427 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Transcending conventional credentialing and assessment paradigms with information-rich digital badges
Casilli, C., & Hickey, D. T. (2016) · The Information Society · doi:10.1080/01972243.2016.1130500 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Summer Weight Gain and Fitness Loss: Causes and Potential Solutions
Weaver, R. G., Beets, M. W., Brazendale, K., & Brusseau, T. A. (2018) · American Journal of Lifestyle Medicine · doi:10.1177/1559827617750576 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Combatting COVID-19's effect on children
OECD (2020) · OECD policy responses to coronavirus (Covid-19) · doi:10.1787/2e1f3b2f-en · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Considerations for educators in supporting student learning in the midst of COVID‐19
Minkos, M. L., & Gelbar, N. W. (2021) · Psychology in the Schools · doi:10.1002/pits.22454 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
Childhood Environment and Gender Gaps in Adulthood
Chetty, R., Hendren, N., Lin, F., Majerovitz, J., & Scuderi, B. (2016) · National Bureau of Economic Research · doi:10.3386/w21936 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Can Schools Enable Parents to Prevent Summer Learning Loss? A Text-Messaging Field Experiment to Promote Literacy Skills
Kraft, M. A., & Monti-Nussbaum, M. (2017) · The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science · doi:10.1177/0002716217732009 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Socioeconomic status and reading outcomes: Neurobiological and behavioral correlates
Romeo, R. R., Uchida, L., & Christodoulou, J. A. (2022) · New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development · doi:10.1002/cad.20475 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
High-Achieving and Average Students’ Reading Growth: Contrasting School and Summer Trajectories
Rambo-Hernandez, K. E., & McCoach, D. B. (2014) · The Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1080/00220671.2013.850398 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Impact of Intensive Summer Reading Intervention for Children With Reading Disabilities and Difficulties in Early Elementary School
Christodoulou, J. A., Cyr, A. B., Murtagh, J., Chang, P., Lin, J., GUARINO, A. J., Hook, P. E., & Gabrieli, J. D. E. (2015) · Journal of Learning Disabilities · doi:10.1177/0022219415617163 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Social Democratic America
Kenworthy, L. (2014) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780199322510.001.0001 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Achievement gaps for students with disabilities: Stable, widening, or narrowing on a state-wide reading comprehension test?
Schulte, A. C., Stevens, J. J., Elliott, S. N., Tindal, G. A., & Nese, J. F. T. (2016) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/edu0000107 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Replicating the Effects of a Teacher-Scaffolded Voluntary Summer Reading Program: The Role of Poverty
White, T. G., Kim, J. S., Kingston, H. C., & Foster, L. (2013) · Reading Research Quarterly · doi:10.1002/rrq.62 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Home schooling through online teaching in the era of COVID-19: Exploring the role of home-related factors that deepen educational inequalities across European societies
Dimopoulos, Κ., Koutsampelas, C., & Tsatsaroni, A. (2021) · European Educational Research Journal · doi:10.1177/14749041211023331 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Large loss in studying time during the closure of schools in Switzerland in 2020
Grätz, M., & Lipps, O. (2020) · Research in Social Stratification and Mobility · doi:10.1016/j.rssm.2020.100554 · Cited by 52 · see citing works

Summer learning and its implications: Insights from the Beginning School Study
Alexander, K. L., Entwisle, D. R., & Olson, L. S. (2007) · New Directions for Youth Development · doi:10.1002/yd.210 · Cited by 108 · see citing works
Self-citation
Schools, Achievement, and Inequality: A Seasonal Perspective
Alexander, K. L., Entwisle, D. R., & Olson, L. S. (2001) · Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis · doi:10.3102/01623737023002171 · Cited by 575 · see citing works
Self-citation
Social-Class Differences in Summer Learning Between Kindergarten and First Grade: Model Specification and Estimation
Burkam, D. T., Ready, D. D., Lee, V. E., & LoGerfo, L. F. (2004) · Sociology of Education · doi:10.1177/003804070407700101 · Cited by 232 · see citing works
Understanding Educational Achievement Gaps: A Summer Learning Perspective
Min, J. (2020) · Rice Research Repository (Rice University)
“Pupils Lose Ground in City Schools: The
Alex, K. L., Entwisle, D. R., & Olson, L. S. (2016)
Self-citation

Authors: Alexander, K. L., Entwisle, D. R., & Olson, L. S.
Affiliations: Johns Hopkins University (US)
Venue: American Sociological Review
Publisher: SAGE Publications
Published: 2007-04
Volume: 72
Issue: 2
Pages: 167-180
ISSN: 0003-1224 (ISSN-L)
1939-8271
DOI: 10.1177/000312240707200202
OpenAlex: W2166150016
Cited by: 763
References: 59
Citations by year: 2026: 16 · 2025: 22 · 2024: 26 · 2023: 36 · 2022: 60 · 2021: 48 · 2020: 77 · 2019: 80 · 2018: 40 · 2017: 42 · 2016: 40 · 2015: 38 · 2014: 48 · 2013: 42 · 2012: 34
FWCI: 111.75
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: journals.sagepub.com/page/policies/text-and-data-mining-license (tdm)
Locations: American Sociological Review (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Education › School Choice and Performance
Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Intergenerational and Educational Inequality Studies
Social Sciences › Education › Parental Involvement in Education
Keywords: achievement gap, family socioeconomic status, educational stratification, college preparatory programs, college attendance, educational attainment

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review

Lasting Consequences of the Summer Learning Gap

Abstract

Integrity signals

Claims the paper makes

Claims other papers make about this one

Cites

Cited by

Related

Record

About these checks