Maximizing species conservation in continental E cuador: a case of systematic conservation planning for biodiverse regions

Despite having high conservation priority, many areas in the Coast present low and medium feasibility.

“However, despite having high conservation priority, many areas in the Coast present low and medium feasibility.”

The areas of highest priority and medium feasibility located in the Coast (Fig. 4: 8, 12, 18, 19, and 21) represent 1.3% of Ecuador.

“The areas of highest priority and medium feasibility located in the Coast (Fig. 4: 8, 12, 18, 19, and 21) represent 1.3% of Ecuador and may well be a priority to achieve the goal.”

In the best Marxan solution, conservation goals were reached for 802 species.

“In this solution, Marxan reached the conservation goals for 802 species; only seven showed low (7–12%) conservation goal deficits, because most of their distributions fall into highly transformed lands, previously excluded from the solution.”

The highest priority areas were located mainly in the Coast.

“The highest priority areas were located mainly in the Coast, where the transformation and degradation of natural ecosystems have been the fastest in Ecuador (Sierra et al. 1999).”

The study identified 12 areas in the southern Andes (Fig. 4: 36-47).

“Finally, our study identified 12 areas in the southern Andes (Fig. 4: 36–47), which would level the current bias toward the northern Andes.”

In the eastern Andes, the proposed areas (Fig. 4: 27-30, 32) comprise several corridors that connect five mostly northern protected areas.

“In the eastern Andes, the proposed areas (Fig. 4: 27–30, 32) comprise several corridors that connect five, mostly northern protected areas: El Angel Ecological Reserve, Cayambe Coca National Park, Sumaco Napo Galeras National Park, Antisana National Park, and Cotopaxi Ecological Reserve.”

Based on the ensemble of 809 species distribution models, the highest diversity for all species is located in the northern Amazon and the northern coast of Ecuador or Ecuadorian Chocó.

“Based on the ensemble of 809 SDMs, the highest diversity for all species is located in the northern Amazon and the northern coast of Ecuador or Ecuadorian Chocó (Fig. 3).”

The current protected area network of continental Ecuador showed large conservation gaps for the species analyzed.

“The current protected area network of continental Ecuador showed large conservation gaps for the species analyzed.”

A large proportion of areas of great diversity (Chocó region and part of northern Amazon) lack formal protection.

“A large proportion of areas of great diversity (Chocó region and part of northern Amazon) lack formal protection.”

The southeastern Coast (Tumbesian region) has a high richness of bird species.

“The southeastern Coast (Tumbesian region), where we identified a high richness of bird species, is considered an important bird area (BirdLife International 2012b).”

16.3% of the terrestrial areas in continental Ecuador are protected by PANE.

“Similar to the study by Cuesta-Camacho et al. (2006), we found that 16.3% of the terrestrial areas in continental Ecuador are protected by PANE (Table 2).”

• cites Cuesta-Camacho et al. 2006Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

According to the species conservation goals, the great majority of species (61.8%) are insufficiently protected.

“According to the species conservation goals, the great majority of species (61.8%) are insufficiently protected.”

Among endangered species (CR, EN, VU), only 26.9% achieved their conservation goals.

“Among the endangered species (CR, EN, VU), only 26.9% achieved their conservation goals.”

Of the 500 species whose conservation goals were missed, 4 (0.5%) are completely outside PANE.

“Of the remaining 500 species (61.8%), 4 (0.5%) are completely out of the PANE and 496 (61.3%) are insufficiently protected.”

The PACs in the Amazon were mostly considered of medium and low priority, because of the combination of low environmental impact and low importance.

“In contrast to the Coast and the Andes, the PACs in the Amazon were mostly considered of medium and low priority, because of the combination of low environmental impact and low importance.”

Small patches of natural vegetation still remain in the heavily altered central Coast zone.

“However, small patches of natural vegetation still remain in this heavily altered zone.”

Most of the endangered species (∼75%) were insufficiently represented by the current protected area network.

“Most of the endangered species (∼75%) were insufficiently represented by the current protected area network.”

Our results largely exceed the established increase of the Government's goal.

“Regarding the Government's goal of increasing the protected area to encompass an additional 5% of the Ecuadorian territory [20], it is clear that our results largely exceed the established increase.”

The southern and eastern foothills of the Amazon are poorly represented in current protected areas.

“Also, as the southern and the eastern foothills of the Amazon are poorly represented in current protected areas, Marxan proposed new areas for protecting the southern Amazon (Fig. 4: 53–57).”

Species conservation goals above 30% require conservation areas that exceed a viable size for the economic and environmental reality of Ecuador.

“This assignation was based on preliminary analyses, indicating that species conservation goals above 30% require conservation areas that exceed a viable size for the economic and environmental reality of Ecuador.”

In our work, the extension of PACs is more than twice the national protected area network.

“Indeed, in our work, the extension of PACs is more than twice the national protected area network.”

From a species-based perspective, the high species richness in the northern Amazon is not adequately protected.

“However, from a species-based perspective, the high species richness in the northern Amazon is not adequately protected.”

In the best Marxan solution, seven species showed low (7-12%) conservation goal deficits.

“In this solution, Marxan reached the conservation goals for 802 species; only seven showed low (7–12%) conservation goal deficits, because most of their distributions fall into highly transformed lands, previously excluded from the solution.”

In the Andes, the highest priority areas are located near urban centers and adjacent to zones transformed by agriculture and cattle farming.

“In the Andes, the highest priority areas are located near urban centers and adjacent to zones transformed by agriculture and cattle farming.”

Only mammals, bromeliads, and moorland plants have more than 50% of their species with conservation goals achieved.

“Only mammals, bromeliads, and moorland plants have more than 50% of their species with conservation goals achieved.”

Planning units selected in the best solution were grouped within 57 potential conservation areas (PACs).

“Planning units selected in the best solution were grouped within 57 PACs (Fig. 4), of which the highest proportion is located in the Coast (Table 2).”

Of the 500 species whose conservation goals were missed, 496 (61.3%) are insufficiently protected.

“Of the remaining 500 species (61.8%), 4 (0.5%) are completely out of the PANE and 496 (61.3%) are insufficiently protected.”

The current protected area network achieved the defined conservation goals for 309 species (38.2%).

“The current protected area network achieved the defined conservation goals for 309 species (38.2%, Table 1).”

Current protected areas have lower average environmental impact (22.72 ± 29.69) than areas outside protected areas (50.93 ± 41).

“On average, current protected areas recorded environmental impacts of 22.72 (± 29.69). These values are low when compared to the impact records of 50.93 (± 41) outside protected areas.”

Only species of moorland plants fully achieved their conservation goals.

“Only species of moorland plants fully achieved their conservation goals, mainly because they are distributed across the Andes, the richest region in reserves.”

In contrast, the Andean region showed the smallest conservation gaps.

“In contrast, the Andean region showed the smallest conservation gaps, which resulted from the high concentration of large protected areas.”

Considering the three regions of continental Ecuador, the Coast showed the largest conservation gaps.

“Considering the three regions of continental Ecuador, the Coast showed the largest conservation gaps.”

The territories included in the current protected area network showed lower values of environmental impact compared with the rest of Ecuador.

“Despite the conservation gaps found for target species, the territories included in the current protected area network showed lower values of environmental impact compared with the rest of Ecuador.”

The study identified eight potential reserves for the northern Coast, encompassing the southern portion of the Chocó (Fig. 4: 1-8).

“Our study identified eight potential reserves for the northern Coast, encompassing the southern portion of the Chocó (Fig. 4: 1–8).”

Marxan proposed new areas for protecting the southern Amazon (Fig. 4: 53-57).

“Also, as the southern and the eastern foothills of the Amazon are poorly represented in current protected areas, Marxan proposed new areas for protecting the southern Amazon (Fig. 4: 53–57).”

13 of the 16 Andean reserves are located in the northern Andes.

“However, 13 of the 16 Andean reserves are located in the northern Andes, which may result in conservation gaps for species and ecosystems with southern distributions.”

The most feasible areas for conservation were found in the Amazon and Andes regions.

“The most feasible areas for conservation were found in the Amazon and Andes regions, which encompass more undisturbed habitats, and already harbor most of the current reserves.”

Marxan proposed corridors and extensions for the large protected areas Cuyabeno Wildlife Reserve, Yasuní National Park, and Sumaco Napo Galeras National Park (Fig. 4: 48, 49, 50 and 52).

“In the Amazon region, Marxan proposed corridors and extensions for the large protected areas Cuyabeno Wildlife Reserve, Yasuní National Park, and Sumaco Napo Galeras National Park (Fig. 4: 48, 49, 50 and 52).”

Most newly proposed potential conservation areas are located in the Coast.

“Most of the newly proposed areas are located in the Coast, a region with large conservation gaps and irreversible changes in land use.”

New areas with low protection in the Amazon (Fig. 4: 52-54), the Andes (Fig. 4: 35, 38, 40-42, 44), the southern (Fig. 4: 22 and 23), central (Fig. 4: 10, 13, 15-17) and northern (Fig. 4: 4-7) Coast summed compose 5.4% of Ecuador.

“From this point of view, we highlight new areas with low protection in the Amazon (Fig. 4: 52–54), the Andes (Fig. 4: 35, 38, 40–42, 44), the southern (Fig. 4: 22 and 23), central (Fig. 4: 10, 13, 15–17) and northern (Fig. 4: 4–7) Coast, which summed compose 5.4% of Ecuador.”

Remnants of pristine land, characterized by low environmental impact and land transformation, in the Andes (Fig. 4: 30, 41 and 43) and the Amazon (Fig. 4: 49, 52, 53, 55-57) jointly represent 5.1% of Ecuador.

“Further options to reach the goals established by the Ecuadorian Government are the remnants of pristine land, characterized by low environmental impact and land transformation, in the Andes (Fig. 4: 30, 41 and 43) and the Amazon (Fig. 4: 49, 52, 53, 55–57), jointly representing 5.1% of Ecuador.”

The results agree with two previous ecosystem-based studies where the Coast is considered the region in most need of protection.

“Conversely, our results agree with two previous ecosystem-based studies (Sierra et al. 2002; Cuesta-Camacho et al. 2006) where the Coast is considered the region in most need of protection.”

• cites Sierra et al. 2002 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Cuesta-Camacho et al. 2006Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Large conservation gaps in the Coast resulted in a major concentration of proposed areas along this region.

“Large conservation gaps in the Coast resulted in a major concentration of proposed areas along this region.”

The 12 identified areas in the southern Andes would level the current bias toward the northern Andes.

“Finally, our study identified 12 areas in the southern Andes (Fig. 4: 36–47), which would level the current bias toward the northern Andes.”

The results highlight the importance of Amazon areas for biodiversity conservation.

“Regardless of the difficulty of implementing protected areas within oil blocks, our results highlight the importance of Amazon areas for biodiversity conservation.”

This situation has been an obstacle for the establishment of protected areas, especially in the central Coast, which is characterized by large spans of transformed land.

“This situation has been an obstacle for the establishment of protected areas, especially in the central Coast, which is characterized by large spans of transformed land.”

The study allows defining a viable strategy for preserving Ecuador's biodiversity by combining species distribution models, GIS-based decision-support software, and priority and feasibility assessments of the selected areas.

“Our study allows defining a viable strategy for preserving Ecuador's biodiversity, by combining SDMs, GIS-based decision-support software, and priority and feasibility assessments of the selected areas.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: PANE reserves are more likely to persist over time than other protected areas.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The 809 selected species adequately represent terrestrial species diversity for conservation planning in continental Ecuador.

Results using ecosystems as conservation targets may differ from studies using species.

“Results using ecosystems as conservation targets may differ from the studies using species.”

Existing protected areas are playing an important role in preventing environmental degradation across Ecuador.

“Thus, it may be concluded that existing protected areas are indeed playing an important role in preventing environmental degradation across Ecuador.”

The Tumbesian region is considered an important bird area.

“The southeastern Coast (Tumbesian region), where we identified a high richness of bird species, is considered an important bird area (BirdLife International 2012b).”

• cites BirdLife International 2012bNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The implementation of the PACs identified for the Coast may require significantly high acquisition costs, because of foregone opportunities to use the land in economically valuable ways.

“Therefore, the implementation of the PACs identified for this region may require significantly high acquisition costs, because of foregone opportunities to use the land in economically valuable ways.”

The transformation and degradation of natural ecosystems have been the fastest in Ecuador in the Coast.

“The highest priority areas were located mainly in the Coast, where the transformation and degradation of natural ecosystems have been the fastest in Ecuador (Sierra et al. 1999).”

• cites Sierra et al. 1999Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Amazon biodiversity suffers from high vulnerability because over 65% of the territory is divided into blocks for oil exploitation.

“However, despite the low priority and high feasibility of the Amazon areas, its biodiversity suffers from high vulnerability because over 65% of the territory is divided into blocks for oil exploitation (Finer et al. 2008).”

• cites Finer et al. 2008 sourceCheck pending

The central southern corridor between Sangay National Park and Llanganates National Park (Fig. 4: 33) might be important for the conservation of large-sized mammals and birds.

“There is also a central southern corridor between the Sangay National Park and Llanganates National Park (Fig. 4: 33), which might be important for the conservation of large-sized mammals and birds (Fonseca et al. 2003; BirdLife International 2012a).”

• cites Fonseca et al. 2003Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites BirdLife International 2012aNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The location of 13 of 16 Andean reserves in the northern Andes may result in conservation gaps for species and ecosystems with southern distributions.

“However, 13 of the 16 Andean reserves are located in the northern Andes, which may result in conservation gaps for species and ecosystems with southern distributions.”

The current protected area network in continental Ecuador contains large conservation gaps for species.

“We found that according to our conservation goals, the current protected area network contains large conservation gaps.”

• Also stated in: § Introduction · plain

  “Unfortunately, this protected area network shows large conservation gaps for species and ecosystems (Sierra et al. 2002; Cuesta-Camacho et al. 2006).”

• Also stated in: § Achievement of species conservation goals by the current protected area network · hedged

  “Large conservation gaps found in the current protected area network indicate that it is necessary to propose a significant increase in the reserve system to meet the unachieved conservation goals.”

• cites Sierra et al. 2002 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Cuesta-Camacho et al. 2006Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Ecuador has the largest number of species by area worldwide.

“Ecuador has the largest number of species by area worldwide”

• Also stated in: § Introduction · plain

  “Ecuador, one of the 17 megadiverse countries, and the most biodiverse when considering species number by unit area (Sierra et al. 2002).”

• cites Sierra et al. 2002 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Over 65% of the Amazon territory is divided into blocks for oil exploitation.

“However, despite the low priority and high feasibility of the Amazon areas, its biodiversity suffers from high vulnerability because over 65% of the territory is divided into blocks for oil exploitation (Finer et al. 2008).”

• cites Finer et al. 2008 sourceCheck pending

The Andean region's smallest conservation gaps resulted from the high concentration of large protected areas.

“In contrast, the Andean region showed the smallest conservation gaps, which resulted from the high concentration of large protected areas.”

Implementing the proposed network would double the extent of the current protected area system from 16.3% to 36.4% of continental Ecuador.

“Potential areas for conservation almost double the surface area of currently protected areas.”

• Also stated in: § Identifying potential areas for conservation · hedged

  “Therefore, implementing this proposed network would imply doubling the extent of the current system of protected areas (from 16.3% to 36.4% of continental Ecuador).”

The main conservation challenge is the central Coast, which has experienced extensive transformation of the original ecosystems by intensive agriculture.

“The main conservation challenge is the central Coast, which has experienced extensive transformation of the original ecosystems by intensive agriculture (Sáenz and Onofa 2005).”

• cites Sáenz and Onofa 2005Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The study selected 809 terrestrial species (182 amphibians, 69 birds, 52 mammals, and 506 plants) that had enough occurrence records in Ecuador to generate reliable species distribution models.

“Specifically, we selected 809 terrestrial species: 182 amphibians, 69 birds, 52 mammals, and 506 plants that had enough occurrence records in Ecuador to generate reliable SDMs.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The 809 selected species adequately represent terrestrial species diversity for conservation planning in continental Ecuador.

The opportunity costs of farming and grazing on the Coast are the highest in Ecuador.

“In addition, the opportunity costs of farming and grazing on the Coast are the highest in Ecuador (Naidoo and Iwamura 2007).”

• cites Naidoo and Iwamura 2007 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The seven species' conservation goal deficits occurred because most of their distributions fall into highly transformed lands previously excluded from the solution.

“In this solution, Marxan reached the conservation goals for 802 species; only seven showed low (7–12%) conservation goal deficits, because most of their distributions fall into highly transformed lands, previously excluded from the solution.”

The corridors between the Cotacachi Cayapas Ecological Reserve, Pululahua Geobotanical Reserve, and Los Illinizas Ecological Reserve (Fig. 4: 24-26) are especially relevant.

“Consequently, the corridors between the Cotacachi Cayapas Ecological Reserve, Pululahua Geobotanical Reserve, and Los Illinizas Ecological Reserve (Fig. 4: 24–26) are especially relevant.”

Species distribution models were used as an intermediate step to estimate geographic distributions because complete information about target species distributions was lacking.

“Given the lack of complete information about the distribution of target species, we used SDMs as an intermediate step toward estimating their geographic distributions.”

• cites Elith and Leathwick 2009b sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Likely, restricted geographic ranges decrease the chance that species distributions overlap with protected areas.

“Likely, their restricted geographic ranges decrease the chance that their distributions overlap with protected areas.”

Protecting areas of maximum feasibility and medium priority (mainly because of their low impact), which represent 3.4% of Ecuador, would complete the Government's goal of 5%.

“Finally, protecting areas of maximum feasibility and medium priority (mainly because of their low impact), which represent 3.4% of Ecuador, would complete the Government's goal of 5%.”

Despite the absence of economic costs in our analysis, the priority areas that we identified are useful to guide the conservation planning in Ecuador given their efficiency in important aspects such as size, connectivity, low level of human intervention, species representativeness, and complementarity.

“It is important to note that despite the absence of economic costs in our analysis, the priority areas that we identified are useful to guide the conservation planning in Ecuador given their efficiency in important aspects such as size, connectivity, low level of human intervention, species representativeness, and complementarity.”

In some cases, SDMs may generate false species presences that would conduct to the design of nonrepresentative and inadequate reserve networks.

“For example, in some cases, SDMs may generate false species presences that would conduct to the design of nonrepresentative and inadequate reserve networks (Carvalho et al. 2010).”

• cites Carvalho et al. 2010Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Other types of data available for highly diverse tropical areas, such as observed points or geographic ranges, usually produce more errors than SDMs.

“However, other types of data available for highly diverse tropical areas, such as observed points or geographic ranges, usually produce more errors than SDMs (Rondinini et al. 2005; Carvalho et al. 2010).”

• cites Rondinini et al. 2005 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Carvalho et al. 2010Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Using this last criterion, no protected area would be added in the Coast, the region with greatest conservation gaps.

“However, using this last criterion, no protected area would be added in the Coast, the region with greatest conservation gaps.”

The current protected areas of Ecuador have several limitations regarding management, given budget deficits, and high pressure on land resource extraction.

“The current protected areas of Ecuador have several limitations regarding management, given budget deficits, and high pressure on land resource extraction (Galindo et al. 2005; Castaño-Uribe 2008).”

• cites Galindo et al. 2005Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Castaño-Uribe 2008Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.