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Fermentation and germination improve nutritional value of cereals and legumes through activation of endogenous enzymes
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Cereals and legumes are outstanding sources of macronutrients, micronutrients, phytochemicals, as well as antinutritional factors. These components present a complex system enabling interactions with different components within food matrices. The interactions result in insoluble complexes with reduced bioaccessibility of nutrients through binding and entrapment thereby limiting their release from food matrices. The interactions of nutrients with antinutritional factors are the main factor hindering nutrients release. Trypsin inhibitors and phytates inherent in cereals and legumes reduce protein digestibility and mineral release, respectively. Interaction of phytates and phenolic compounds with minerals is significant in cereals and legumes. Fermentation and germination are commonly used to disrupt these interactions and make nutrients and phytochemicals free and accessible to digestive enzymes. This paper presents a review on traditional fermentation and germination processes as a means to address myriad interactions through activation of endogenous enzymes such as α-amylase, pullulanase, phytase, and other glucosidases. These enzymes degrade antinutritional factors and break down complex macronutrients to their simple and more digestible forms.
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“Additionally, fermentation further promotes the microbial degradation of antinutritional compounds by producing phytases and proteolytic enzymes, while also increasing the release of bioactive compounds and antioxidant activity [34].”
From Valorization of Microalgae as Multifunctional Protein Sources in Plant-Based Systems: Structural, Functional, and Processing Challenges (2026) · cites this paper as [34]
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“Germination activates endogenous enzymes, including phytases, proteases, and α-galactosidases, which degrade phytic acid, protease inhibitors, and raffinose-family oligosaccharides, thereby enhancing mineral bioavailability and protein digestibility [34,35].”
From Valorization of Microalgae as Multifunctional Protein Sources in Plant-Based Systems: Structural, Functional, and Processing Challenges (2026) · cites this paper as [34]
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Ighalo, J. O., Kurniawan, S. B., Khongthaw, B., Buhari, J., Chauhan, P. K., Georgin, J., & Franco, D. S. P. (2024) · RSC Advances · doi:10.1039/d4ra05628k · Cited by 65
“197,198 The colonies of bacteria with the potential to degrade BPA into less toxic compounds have been reported in diverse environments including sediments, treatment plants, and soil samples.”
BackgroundIntegrated molecular approaches for fermented food microbiome research
Walsh, A. M., Leech, J., Huttenhower, C., Delhomme-Nguyen, H., Crispie, F., Chervaux, C., & Cotter, P. D. (2023) · FEMS Microbiology Reviews · doi:10.1093/femsre/fuad001 · Cited by 56
Global diversity of dietary intakes and standards for zinc, iron, and copper
FREELAND-GRAVES, J. H., Sachdev, P. K., Binderberger, A. Z., & Sosanya, M. E. (2020) · Journal of Trace Elements in Medicine and Biology · doi:10.1016/j.jtemb.2020.126515 · Cited by 55
Mineral elements in Bamboo shoots and Potential role in Food Fortification
Chongtham, N., Bisht, M. S., Santosh, O., Bajwa, H. K., & Indira, A. (2020) · Journal of Food Composition and Analysis · doi:10.1016/j.jfca.2020.103662 · Cited by 55
Nutritional advantages of barnyard millet and opportunities for its processing as value-added foods
Bhatt, D., Rasane, P., Singh, J., Kaur, S., Fairos, M., Kaur, J., Gunjal, M., Mahato, D. K., Mehta, C. M., Avinashe, H. A., et al. (2022) · Journal of Food Science and Technology · doi:10.1007/s13197-022-05602-1 · Cited by 55
Dima, C. V., Assadpour, E., Nechifor, A., Dima, Ş., Li, Y., & Jafari, S. M. (2023) · Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition · doi:10.1080/10408398.2023.2199861 · Cited by 58
“…polyphenols, and minerals, reducing the content of antinutrients through activation of endogenous enzymes (α-amylase, pullulanase, and phytase), improving the digestibility of macronutrients, and increasing bioavailability of micronutrients and bioactives (Nkhata et al. 2018; Zhang et al. 2015).”
Alrosan, M., Tan, T., Koh, W. Y., Easa, A. M., Gammoh, S., & Alu'datt, M. H. (2022) · Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition · doi:10.1080/10408398.2022.2049200 · Cited by 56
Oladiran, D. A., & Emmambux, M. N. (2020) · Food Reviews International · doi:10.1080/87559129.2020.1762640 · Cited by 53
“Fermentation provides the optimum pH condition for phytase activity as a result of production of organic acids, thereby promoting phytate degradation and increase in the amount of soluble minerals.([112]) This infers that phytase activity is”
BackgroundCiska, E., Honke, J., & Drabińska, N. (2021) · Food Chemistry · doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2021.130498 · Cited by 52
Li, S., Feng, X., Hao, X., Zhu, Y., Zou, L., Chen, X., & Yao, Y. (2023) · Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety · doi:10.1111/1541-4337.13183 · Cited by 57
Purohit, P., Rawat, H., Verma, N., Mishra, S., Nautiyal, A., Anshul, Bhatt, S., Bisht, N., Aggarwal, K., Bora, A., et al. (2023) · Journal of Agriculture and Food Research · doi:10.1016/j.jafr.2023.100877 · Cited by 61
Structuring Plant-Based Foods Using Less Refined Plant Proteins and High Moisture Extrusion
Nasrollahzadeh, F. (2023) · The Atrium (University of Guelph) · doi:10.1016/j.foodhyd.2022.108400
Dietary fiber and polyphenols from whole grains: effects on the gut and health improvements
Wei, X., Wang, J., Wang, Y., Zhao, Y., Long, Y., Tan, B., Li, Q. X., Dong, Z., & Wan, X. (2024) · Food & Function · doi:10.1039/d4fo00715h · Cited by 55
Wei, J., & Cen, K. (2020) · Journal of Cleaner Production · doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.121001 · Cited by 51
Chandrasekaran, S., & de Mejı́a, E. G. (2021) · Food Chemistry · doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2021.131717 · Cited by 51
Adesulu-Dahunsi, A. T., Dahunsi, S. O., & Ajayeoba, T. A. (2022) · Frontiers in Microbiology · doi:10.3389/fmicb.2022.684730 · Cited by 54
Sánchez-García, J., Asensio‐Grau, A., García‐Hernández, J., Heredia, A. B., & Andrés, A. (2022) · Bioresources and Bioprocessing · doi:10.1186/s40643-022-00542-2 · Cited by 50
Aghababaei, F., McClements, D. J., Pignitter, M., & Hadidi, M. (2024) · Advances in Colloid and Interface Science · doi:10.1016/j.cis.2024.103280 · Cited by 51
Liang, Z., Sun, J., Yang, S., Wen, R., Liu, L., Du, P., Li, C., & Zhang, G. (2022) · Food Bioscience · doi:10.1016/j.fbio.2022.101798 · Cited by 48
How does germinated rice impact starch structure, products and nutrional evidences? – A review
Oliveira, M. E. A. S., Coimbra, P. P. S., Galdeano, M. C., de Carvalho, C. W. P., & Takeiti, C. Y. (2022) · Trends in Food Science & Technology · doi:10.1016/j.tifs.2022.02.015 · Cited by 47
Can pseudocereals modulate microbiota by functioning as probiotics or prebiotics?
Ugural, A., & Akyol, A. (2020) · Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition · doi:10.1080/10408398.2020.1846493 · Cited by 50
“Olawoye and Gbadamosi (2017) showed that fermentation or sprouting of amaranth grains increased the antioxidant capacity, metal chelating activity and digestibility of the proteins in vitro.”
BackgroundCsatlos, N.-I., Simon, E., Teleky, B., Szabo, K., Diaconeasa, Z. M., Vodnar, D. C., Ciont, C., & Pop, O. L. (2023) · Biomolecules · doi:10.3390/biom13020245 · Cited by 47
“In particular, lactic acid bacteria (LAB), mediated fermentation can decrease phytate and trypsin inhibitors and hydrolyze tannic acid [19,20].”
Xi, X., Fan, G., Xue, H., Peng, S., Huang, W., & Zhan, J. (2024) · Antioxidants · doi:10.3390/antiox13070829 · Cited by 57
“Such a process is due to the germination activating enzymes within the seeds ( α -amylase, proteases, pullulanase, phytase, and other glucosidases), which degrade antinutritional factors and break down complex macronutrients to release more minerals [48,49].”
BackgroundMaize bioactive peptides: From structure to human health
Trinidad-Calderón, P. A., Acosta-Cruz, E., Rivero-Masante, M. N., Díaz-Gómez, J. L., García‐Lara, S., & López-Castillo, L. M. (2021) · Journal of Cereal Science · doi:10.1016/j.jcs.2021.103232 · Cited by 50
Underlying evidence for the health benefits of fermented foods in humans
Rul, F., Béra‐Maillet, C., Champomier‐Vergès, M., Mecherfi, K. E. E., Foligné, B., Michalski, M., Milenković, D., & Savary‐Auzeloux, I. (2022) · Food & Function · doi:10.1039/d1fo03989j · Cited by 47
Mudau, M., Ramashia, S. E., & Mashau, M. E. (2022) · Foods · doi:10.3390/foods11162474 · Cited by 46
Metadata
- Authors
- Nkhata, S. G., Ayua, E., Kamau, E. H., & Shingiro, J.
- Affiliations
- Department of Agriculture Extension Services Lilongwe Malawi
- University of Eldoret (KE)
- Rwanda Agriculture Board (RW)
- Corresponding author
- Nkhata, Smith G.
- Venue
- Food Science & Nutrition
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2018-10-16
- Volume
- 6
- Issue
- 8
- Pages
- 2446-2458
- ISSN
- 2048-7177 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC6261201
- OpenAlex
- W2896888197
- Cited by
- 876
- References
- 100
- Citations by year
- 2026: 124 · 2025: 143 · 2024: 159 · 2023: 154 · 2022: 129 · 2021: 103 · 2020: 57 · 2019: 7
- FWCI
- 4.25
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Food Science & Nutrition (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, other-oa)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion)
- Informationszentrum Lebenswissenschaften (ZB MED) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Plant Science › Phytase and its Applications
- Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Food composition and properties
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Food Science › Food Nutrient Composition and Product Development
- Keywords
- cereal fermentation, Fabaceae, antinutritional factors, phytic acid, trypsin inhibitor, phenolic compounds, mineral bioaccessibility, protein digestibility, endogenous enzymes, phytase, alpha-amylase, pullulanase, glucosidase, nutrient bioavailability, phytochemicals
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