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Fermentation and germination improve nutritional value of cereals and legumes through activation of endogenous enzymes
Open accessAbstract
Cereals and legumes are outstanding sources of macronutrients, micronutrients, phytochemicals, as well as antinutritional factors. These components present a complex system enabling interactions with different components within food matrices. The interactions result in insoluble complexes with reduced bioaccessibility of nutrients through binding and entrapment thereby limiting their release from food matrices. The interactions of nutrients with antinutritional factors are the main factor hindering nutrients release. Trypsin inhibitors and phytates inherent in cereals and legumes reduce protein digestibility and mineral release, respectively. Interaction of phytates and phenolic compounds with minerals is significant in cereals and legumes. Fermentation and germination are commonly used to disrupt these interactions and make nutrients and phytochemicals free and accessible to digestive enzymes. This paper presents a review on traditional fermentation and germination processes as a means to address myriad interactions through activation of endogenous enzymes such as α-amylase, pullulanase, phytase, and other glucosidases. These enzymes degrade antinutritional factors and break down complex macronutrients to their simple and more digestible forms.
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“Additionally, fermentation further promotes the microbial degradation of antinutritional compounds by producing phytases and proteolytic enzymes, while also increasing the release of bioactive compounds and antioxidant activity [34].”
From Valorization of Microalgae as Multifunctional Protein Sources in Plant-Based Systems: Structural, Functional, and Processing Challenges (2026) · cites this paper as [34]
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“Germination activates endogenous enzymes, including phytases, proteases, and α-galactosidases, which degrade phytic acid, protease inhibitors, and raffinose-family oligosaccharides, thereby enhancing mineral bioavailability and protein digestibility [34,35].”
From Valorization of Microalgae as Multifunctional Protein Sources in Plant-Based Systems: Structural, Functional, and Processing Challenges (2026) · cites this paper as [34]
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BackgroundLayla, A., Syed, Q. A., Zahoor, T., & Shahid, M. A. (2023) · International Microbiology · doi:10.1007/s10123-023-00426-1 · Cited by 8
“Fermentation combined with sprouting enhances the solubility of soluble minerals and improves their bioavailability (Nkhata et al. 2018).”
Buvaneswaran, M., Sunil, C. K., Rawson, A., Vidyalakshmi, R., & Natarajan, V. (2023) · Food and Humanity · doi:10.1016/j.foohum.2023.10.011 · Cited by 8
Eltayeb, M. M., Eltigani, S. A., & Taniguchi, T. (2020) · Annals of Microbiology · doi:10.1186/s13213-020-01595-4 · Cited by 9
Quality characterization of burger formulated with tempeh
Youssef, M., Naeem, M., & Zaki, N. L. (2021) · Egyptian Journal of Food Science · doi:10.21608/ejfs.2021.71693.1104 · Cited by 8
“Moreover, some fermenting microorganisms have the ability to degrade fiber which loosens the food matrix further (Smith et al., 2018).”
BackgroundYafetto, L., Nsiah-Asamoah, C. N. A., Birikorang, E., & Odamtten, G. T. (2022) · International Journal of Food Science · doi:10.1155/2022/2264993 · Cited by 8
Barreto, N. M. B., Sandôra, D., Braz, B. F., Santelli, R. E., Silva, F. D. O., Monteiro, M. C., & Perrone, D. (2022) · Molecules · doi:10.3390/molecules27227975 · Cited by 8
“Even though fermentation of soybean meal led to a decrease in the contribution to the DRI of iron (16% for men), it should be noted that its bioavailability might be favored due to the concomitant decrease in the content of anti-nutrients, such as phytate, oxalate and tannins, as observed in the literature [24].”
BackgroundChawafambira, A., & Jombo, T. Z. (2023) · Applied Food Research · doi:10.1016/j.afres.2023.100367 · Cited by 8
Sprouting days: Its influence on quality characteristics of millet and sorghum flour
Adu, M., Anim, S. O., Odoom, W., Adomako, C., & Osei-Asibey, R. K. (2024) · Applied Food Research · doi:10.1016/j.afres.2024.100518 · Cited by 9
Ojo, M. O., Oni, O. K., Zubair, A. B., Femi, F. A., Audu, Y., Etim, B. T., & Adeyeye, S. A. O. (2024) · Journal of Food Science · doi:10.1111/1750-3841.17501 · Cited by 7
Mashau, M. E., Ramatsetse, K. E., Takalani, T., Bamidele, O. P., & Ramashia, S. E. (2025) · Molecules · doi:10.3390/molecules30112356 · Cited by 7
“The enhanced mineral content of BGN flour may be linked to the liberation of bound minerals and the reduction of ANFs during germination [87].”
Fermentation-driven circular aquafeed solutions: sustainable use of agricultural byproducts
Malik, M. A., Sharma, A., Chuphal, N., & Dar, S. A. (2025) · Aquaculture International · doi:10.1007/s10499-025-02184-5 · Cited by 7
“Thirdly, fermentation enzymatically breaks down non-digestible polymers like cellulose and hemicellulose into simpler sugar forms (Nkhata et al. 2018; Sharma et al. 2020).”
Influentialda Cruz, L. N., Costa, B. V., Lopes, C., Henriques, C. M. H., & de Castro, R. J. S. (2025) · Journal of Food Science · doi:10.1111/1750-3841.70554 · Cited by 7
“The observed variation may also be attributed to a reduction in other components, such as fats, due to the hydrolytic activity of enzymes released by the microorganism to obtain energy—rather than reflecting a true increase in protein content, as suggested by Nkhata et al. (2018).”
Processing, preservation, and value addition of indigenous food crops in West Africa
Amissah, J. G. N., Adjei, M. Y. B., Amissah, J. N., Asem, F. E., & Kolog, J. D. (2025) · Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems · doi:10.3389/fsufs.2025.1657056 · Cited by 7
Anti-Nutritional Factors in Legumes: Reduction Strategies and their Impact - A Review
Sammoud, S., Charfi, I., Rakotozafy, L., Snoussi, A., Giuffrè, A. M., Ghazghazi, H., & Bornaz, S. (2025) · Current Nutrition & Food Science · doi:10.2174/0115734013379477251013142545 · Cited by 8
Fernando, W. M. A. D. B., Abdulraheem, R. A., Kariyawasam, K. P., Samarasinghe, A. S., Fernando, W. M. K. T., Barnes, H., Robertson, M., Jayatunga, D. P. W., Silva, N. K. D., & Jayasena, V. (2025) · International Journal of Food Science · doi:10.1155/ijfo/7084868 · Cited by 7
“This process can lead to a signi fi cant increase in dietary fi bre content, with some studies reporting notable improvements due to the metabolic activities involved in sprouting [84, 88].”
Samantaray, P., & Saha, S. (2026) · Foods · doi:10.3390/foods15040687 · Cited by 7
Ahure, D., & Ejoha, P. O. (2020) · Asian Journal of Biotechnology and Bioresource Technology · doi:10.9734/ajb2t/2020/v6i130072 · Cited by 7
“The higher the ash content, the higher the mineral content of the food [61].”
BackgroundMbijiwe, J., Ndungu, Z. W., & Kinyuru, J. N. (2021) · Journal of Food Research · doi:10.5539/jfr.v10n6p36 · Cited by 8
“The beta-carotene content a precursor of vitamin A in fermented sorghum flour was found to be negligible which concurs with past studies (Adebo, 2020; Nkhata et al., 2018).”
ResultWang, Y., Kansou, K., Pritchard, J. R., Zwart, A. B., Saulnier, L., & Ral, J.-P. F. (2022) · Carbohydrate Polymers · doi:10.1016/j.carbpol.2022.119652 · Cited by 7
Wahyuni, S., Asnani, A., Khaeruni, A., Dewi, N. D. P., Sarinah, S., & Faradilla, R. F. (2023) · Journal of Food Science and Technology · doi:10.1007/s13197-023-05813-0 · Cited by 7
“Adebo et al. (2022) and Nkhata et al. (2018) reviewed the effect of fermentation on the protein content of cereals.”
BackgroundNie, J., Wang, L., Xu, J., Gao, X., Hinkley, S. F. R., & Fu, X. (2023) · LWT · doi:10.1016/j.lwt.2023.115281 · Cited by 7
Srenuja, D., Hema, V., Anand, M. T., Mohan, R. J., & Vidyalakshmi, R. (2023) · Food Chemistry Advances · doi:10.1016/j.focha.2023.100509 · Cited by 8
(2023) · Journal of Food Chemistry and Nanotechnology · doi:10.17756/jfcn.2023-s1-042 · Cited by 7
“[32] Sorghum Increased ash and protein but with reduction in moisture.”
BackgroundInfluentialLin, H., Fei, T., Liu, X., Lin, X., & Wang, L. (2025) · Trends in Food Science & Technology · doi:10.1016/j.tifs.2025.105020 · Cited by 8
Abioye, V. F., Olodude, O. A., Atiba, V., & Oyewo, I. O. (2020) · Agrosearch · doi:10.4314/agrosh.v20i1.2s · Cited by 7
“Similar report was recorded by Nkhata et al. (2018).”
Salmonella Growth during the Soaking Step of ‘Sprouted’ Grain, Nut, and Seed Production
Emch, A. W., Burroughs, S., Gaspar-Hernandez, J., & Waite-Cusic, J. G. (2021) · Food Protection Trends · doi:10.4315/1541-9576-41.3.314 · Cited by 7
Influence of Fermentation and Germination on Food Bioactives
Ansari, F., & Pourjafar, H. (2022) · Food bioactive ingredients · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-96885-4_9 · Cited by 7
Metadata
- Authors
- Nkhata, S. G., Ayua, E., Kamau, E. H., & Shingiro, J.
- Affiliations
- Department of Agriculture Extension Services Lilongwe Malawi
- University of Eldoret (KE)
- Rwanda Agriculture Board (RW)
- Corresponding author
- Nkhata, Smith G.
- Venue
- Food Science & Nutrition
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2018-10-16
- Volume
- 6
- Issue
- 8
- Pages
- 2446-2458
- ISSN
- 2048-7177 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC6261201
- OpenAlex
- W2896888197
- Cited by
- 876
- References
- 100
- Citations by year
- 2026: 124 · 2025: 143 · 2024: 159 · 2023: 154 · 2022: 129 · 2021: 103 · 2020: 57 · 2019: 7
- FWCI
- 4.25
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Food Science & Nutrition (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, other-oa)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion)
- Informationszentrum Lebenswissenschaften (ZB MED) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Plant Science › Phytase and its Applications
- Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Food composition and properties
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Food Science › Food Nutrient Composition and Product Development
- Keywords
- cereal fermentation, Fabaceae, antinutritional factors, phytic acid, trypsin inhibitor, phenolic compounds, mineral bioaccessibility, protein digestibility, endogenous enzymes, phytase, alpha-amylase, pullulanase, glucosidase, nutrient bioavailability, phytochemicals
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