Redefining varicose projection astrocytes in primates.
Abstract
Varicose projection astrocytes (VP‐As) are found in the cerebral cortex and have been described to be specific to humans and chimpanzees. To further examine the phylogenetic distribution of this cell type, we analyzed cortical tissue from several primates ranging from primitive primates to primates evolutionary closer to human such as apes. We specifically analyzed tissue from four strepsirrhine species, one tarsier, six species of platyrrhine monkeys, ten species of cercopithecoid monkeys, two hylobatid ape species, four to six cases each of chimpanzee, bonobo, gorilla, and orangutan, and thirteen human. We found that VP‐As were present only in human and other apes (hominoids) and were absent in all other species. We showed that VP‐As are localized to layer VI and the superficial white matter of the cortex. The presence of VP‐As co‐occured with interlaminar astrocytes that also had varicosities in their processes. Due to their location, their long tangential processes, and their irregular presence within species, we propose that VP‐As are astrocytes that develop varicosities under specific conditions and that are not a distinct astrocyte type.
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VP-As show varicosities along their longer processes and are present in the deeper layers of the cortex and white matter.
“These astrocytes show peculiar varicosities along their longer processes and are present in the deeper layers of the cortex and white matter.”
From Interlaminar and varicose-projection astrocytes: toward a new understanding of the primate brain (2024) · cites this paper as Falcone et al., 2022
VP-As have been observed in humans and apes only.
“Another type of astrocyte has been observed in humans and apes only: the varicose-projection astrocytes (VP-As)”
From Interlaminar and varicose-projection astrocytes: toward a new understanding of the primate brain (2024) · cites this paper as Falcone et al., 2022
VP-As express similar markers to ILAs (GFAP, CD44, Aqp4, Aldh1L1, and S100β).
“VP-As seem to be linked to ILAs: they express similar markers (GFAP, CD44, Aqp4, Aldh1L1, and S100β).”
From Interlaminar and varicose-projection astrocytes: toward a new understanding of the primate brain (2024) · cites this paper as Falcone et al., 2022
No species-related differences in morphology were noticed between VP-As belonging to humans and great apes, and they are localized in all the areas of the brain.
“No species-related differences in morphology were noticed between VP-As belonging to humans and great-apes and they are localized in all the areas of the brain (Falcone et al., 2022).”
From Interlaminar and varicose-projection astrocytes: toward a new understanding of the primate brain (2024) · cites this paper as Falcone et al., 2022
VP-As are present in apes (chimpanzee, bonobo, orangutan, gorilla, gibbon, and siamang), but not in other primates.
“it was later found by Falcone et al. (2022) that VP-As are also present in apes (chimpanzee, bonobo, orangutan, gorilla, gibbon, and siamang), but not in other primates.”
From Interlaminar and varicose-projection astrocytes: toward a new understanding of the primate brain (2024) · cites this paper as Falcone et al. (2022)
VP-As are "individual-specific," meaning they are not present in all individuals within the same species, but only in some.
“Intriguingly, VP-As were found to be “individual-specific,” meaning they were not present in all the individuals within the same species, but only in some of them, enforcing the hypothesis of their origin as linked to specific brain conditions (Falcone et al., 2022; Pereira and Furlan, 2010; Sosunov et al., 2014).”
From Interlaminar and varicose-projection astrocytes: toward a new understanding of the primate brain (2024) · cites this paper as Falcone et al., 2022
VP-A presence co-occurs with the appearance of varicosities along ILA perpendicular fibers, strengthening the hypothesis that VP-As may arise from a morphological change in resident astrocytes in response to specific insults.
“Additionally, VP-A’s presence co-occurre together with the appearance of varicosities along ILA perpendicular fibers, strengthening the hypothesis that VP-As may arise from a morphological change in resident astrocytes in response to specific insults (Falcone et al., 2022).”
From Interlaminar and varicose-projection astrocytes: toward a new understanding of the primate brain (2024) · cites this paper as Falcone et al., 2022
Previous studies have shown that varicose projection astrocytes were not detected in neonatal or infant human brains.
“Previous studies have shown that varicose projection astrocytes were not detected in neonatal or infant human brains (21, 22)”
From Varicose projection astrocytes: Conserved reactive cells in brain pathology (2026) · cites this paper as [21]
Varicose projection astrocytes were considered a physiological subtype of human/hominoid astrocytes with unclear functional significance.
“On the basis of early description in postmortem tissue and surgical resections, varicose projection astrocytes were considered a physiological subtype of human/hominoid astrocytes with unclear functional significance (21, 22).”
From Varicose projection astrocytes: Conserved reactive cells in brain pathology (2026) · cites this paper as [21]
Varicose projection astrocytes represent a distinct astrocyte population that were originally contemplated to be unique to humans and other hominoids.
“Varicose projection astrocytes represent a distinct astrocyte population that were originally contemplated to be unique to humans and other hominoids (21, 22).”
From Varicose projection astrocytes: Conserved reactive cells in brain pathology (2026) · cites this paper as [21]
Varicose projection astrocytes have been previously described in aged or diseased human brains and not always found in all samples within the same species.
“Varicose projection astrocytes have been previously described in aged or diseased human brains and not always found in all the samples within the same species (21, 22).”
From Varicose projection astrocytes: Conserved reactive cells in brain pathology (2026) · cites this paper as [21]
Varicose projection astrocytes are not restricted to hominoids but also appear in other mammals, like mice and tigers.
“our finding that varicose projection astrocytes are not only restricted to hominoids (17, 21) but also appear in other mammals, like mice and tigers”
From Varicose projection astrocytes: Conserved reactive cells in brain pathology (2026) · cites this paper as [21]
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- Authors
- Falcone, C., McBride, E. L., Hopkins, W. D., Hof, P. R., Manger, P. R., Sherwood, C. C., Noctor, S. C., & Martínez‐Cerdeño, V.
- Affiliations
- Shriners Hospitals for Children - Northern California (US)
- The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center (US)
- Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai (US)
- University of the Witwatersrand (ZA)
- George Washington University (US)
- University of California Davis Medical Center (US)
- ORCID
- Venue
- Glia
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2021-09-17
- Volume
- 70
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 145-154
- ISSN
- 0894-1491 (ISSN-L)
- 1098-1136
- OpenAlex
- W3200927307
- Cited by
- 56
- References
- 24
- Citations by year
- 2026: 11 · 2025: 9 · 2024: 14 · 2023: 13 · 2022: 8 · 2021: 1
- FWCI
- 4.15
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Glia (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- SDL (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Shriners Hospitals for Children
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Neuroscience and Neuropharmacology Research
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Neurology › Neuroinflammation and Neurodegeneration Mechanisms
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Anatomy › Medical and Biological Sciences
- Keywords
- cerebral cortex, primate evolution, hominoids, phylogenetic distribution, superficial white matter, chimpanzees, bonobos, gorillas, orangutans, platyrrhine monkeys, human astrocytes
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Astrocytes, Cerebral Cortex, Biological Evolution, Phylogeny, Primates
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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