Control of Synapse Number by Glia
Abstract
Although astrocytes constitute nearly half of the cells in our brain, their function is a long-standing neurobiological mystery. Here we show by quantal analyses, FM1-43 imaging, immunostaining, and electron microscopy that few synapses form in the absence of glial cells and that the few synapses that do form are functionally immature. Astrocytes increase the number of mature, functional synapses on central nervous system (CNS) neurons by sevenfold and are required for synaptic maintenance in vitro. We also show that most synapses are generated concurrently with the development of glia in vivo. These data demonstrate a previously unknown function for glia in inducing and stabilizing CNS synapses, show that CNS synapse number can be profoundly regulated by nonneuronal signals, and raise the possibility that glia may actively participate in synaptic plasticity.
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Many original articles, reviews, and textbooks state that the human brain has 100 billion neurons and 10 times more glial cells, usually without citing references.
“Many original articles, reviews and textbooks affirm that we have 100 billion neurons and 10 times more glial cells (Kandel et al., 2000; Ullian et al., 2001; Doetsch, 2003; Nishiyama et al., 2005; Noctor et al., 2007; Allen and Barres, 2009), usually with no references cited.”
From The human brain in numbers: a linearly scaled-up primate brain (2009) · cites this paper as Ullian et al., 2001
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- Authors
- Ullian, E. M., Sapperstein, S. K., Christopherson, K. S., & Barres, B. A.
- Affiliations
- Stanford Medicine (US)
- Corresponding author
- Ullian, Erik M.
- Venue
- Science
- Published
- 2001-01-26
- Volume
- 291
- Issue
- 5504
- Pages
- 657-661
- ISSN
- 0036-8075 (ISSN-L)
- 1095-9203
- OpenAlex
- W2031611126
- Cited by
- 1,380
- References
- 1
- Citations by year
- 2026: 33 · 2025: 30 · 2024: 43 · 2023: 48 · 2022: 47 · 2021: 68 · 2020: 44 · 2019: 45 · 2018: 49 · 2017: 59 · 2016: 72 · 2015: 39 · 2014: 64 · 2013: 58 · 2012: 53
- FWCI
- 31.55
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Science (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (1f32ns010784-01)
- National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NS10784)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Neuroscience and Neuropharmacology Research
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Neurology › Neuroinflammation and Neurodegeneration Mechanisms
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Developmental Neuroscience › Neurogenesis and neuroplasticity mechanisms
- Keywords
- astrocytes, glial cells, synapse number, synapse maturation, synapse maintenance, glial development, synaptic plasticity, central nervous system neurons, neuron-glia interactions
- MeSH terms
- Quaternary Ammonium Compounds, Animals, Astrocytes, Calcium, Calcium-Binding Proteins, Cell Communication, Cells, Cultured, Fluorescent Dyes, Membrane Glycoproteins, Microscopy, Electron, Nerve Tissue Proteins, Synaptic Transmission, Neuronal Plasticity, Pyridinium Compounds, Retinal Ganglion Cells, Superior Colliculi, Synapses, Synaptic Vesicles, Ionomycin, Synaptophysin, Rats, Sprague-Dawley, Patch-Clamp Techniques, Glutamic Acid, Coculture Techniques, Excitatory Postsynaptic Potentials, Synaptotagmins, Rats
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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