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Meta-analysis of the factor structures of four depression questionnaires: Beck, CES-D, Hamilton, and Zung
Abstract
Four separate metaanalyses of factor analyses were conducted for the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale (CES-D), the Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression (HRSD), and the Zung Self-Rating Depression Scale (SDS). The total number of participants (N) and studies (k) included in each of the metaanalyses were the following: BDI (N = 13,643, k = 33), CES-D (N = 22,340, k = 28), HRSD (N = 2,606, k = 17), and SDS (N = 12,621, k = 13). Metaanalysis results suggest that the specific depression symptom factors within each test appear to be relatively robust and well established and match fairly closely previously hypothesized factor structures. A general Depression Severity factor and a small Somatic Symptoms factor are found in all four tests and two tests had a small Positive Affect factor. There were fewer common specific depression symptom factors across tests than expected.
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“9% according to the more conservative BDI-13 (Shafer, 2006)”
From Persistent psychopathology and neurocognitive impairment in COVID-19 survivors: effect of inflammatory biomarkers at three-month follow-up (2021) · cites this paper as Shafer, 2006
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Depressive symptom profiles, cardio-metabolic risk and inflammation: Results from the MIDUS study
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“A recent meta-analysis of the factor structure of the CES-D found a clear four-factor solution that distinguished somatic, negative affect, positive affect, and interpersonal symptoms (Shafer, 2006).”
Depression in Choroidal Melanoma Patients Treated with Proton Beam Radiotherapy
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Anxiety Sensitivity as a Predictor of Acute Subjective Effects of Smoking
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Psychometric properties of the CESD, STAI-T, and PSS among parents of children with mental illness
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“various populations have supported a four-factor structure of positive affect, depressed affect, somatic symptoms, and interpersonal relations (Shafer, 2006).”
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“The symptom dimensions, insomnia, mood, anxiety, and somatic symptoms were derived by adopting Shafer (2006) factor analysis of the HAMD.”
MethodDual identity and psychological adjustment: A study among immigrant-origin members
Zhang, S., Verkuyten, M., & Weesie, J. (2018) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2018.02.008 · Cited by 36
O’Shea, D. M., Dotson, V. M., Woods, A. J., Porges, E. C., Williamson, J. B., O’Shea, A. M., & Cohen, R. A. (2018) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2018.00040 · Cited by 33
“Factor analytic studies of self-reported depression measures have typically identified a somatic, cognitive, and affective component, albeit in various combinations (Shafer, 2006; Elhai et al., 2012), supporting the consensus that depression is a highly heterogeneous disorder (Winokur, 1997).”
BackgroundProyer, R. T., Gander, F., Wellenzohn, S., & Ruch, W. (2017) · Journal of Well-Being Assessment · doi:10.1007/s41543-018-0006-0 · Cited by 29
“The CES-D has good psychometric properties and is one of the most frequently used measures for depression (Shafer, 2006).”
MethodRajan, K. B., Wilson, R. S., Skarupski, K. A., de Leon, C. F. M., & Evans, D. A. (2014) · Psychosomatic Medicine · doi:10.1097/psy.0000000000000029 · Cited by 29
Reinvention of Depression Instruments by Primary Care Clinicians
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Role in depression of a multi-fractionated versus a conventional Hypericum perforatum extract
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Predictors of upper trapezius pain with myofascial trigger points in food service workers
Hwang, U., Kwon, O.-Y., Yi, C., Jeon, H., Weon, J.-H., & Ha, S.-M. (2017) · Medicine · doi:10.1097/md.0000000000007252 · Cited by 28
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“While some authors have suggested that the CES-D has a four-factor structure, it appears to provide meaningful measurement along a single dimension [7].”
BackgroundFamily Material Hardship and Chinese Adolescents’ Problem Behaviors: A Moderated Mediation Analysis
Sun, W., Li, D., Zhang, W., Bao, Z., & Wang, Y. (2015) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0128024 · Cited by 30
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Lu, X., Liu, C., Hong, L., Qian, X., Wang, C., Jia, C.-X., & Jia, F. (2024) · Translational Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41398-024-03063-y · Cited by 31
Leventhal, A. M., Ray, L. A., Rhee, S. H., & Unger, J. B. (2011) · Nicotine & Tobacco Research · doi:10.1093/ntr/ntr253 · Cited by 27
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Bakula, D. M., Sharkey, C. M., Perez, M. N., Espeleta, H. C., Hawkins, M. A. W., Chaney, J. M., & Mullins, L. L. (2019) · Journal of Pediatric Psychology · doi:10.1093/jpepsy/jsz004 · Cited by 27
Zink, J., Ebrahimian, S., Belcher, B., & Leventhal, A. M. (2019) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2019.11.130 · Cited by 23
“…I thought my life had been a failure), positive affect (e.g., I felt hopeful about the future, I enjoyed life), somatic features (e.g., My sleep was restless, I had trouble keeping my mind on what I was doing), and interpersonal disturbance (e.g., I felt that people dislike me) (Shafer, 2006).”
BackgroundResultGENETIC MODERATORS OF THE IMPACT OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY ON DEPRESSIVE SYMPTOMS
Dotson, V. M., Hsu, F. C., Langaee, T. Y., McDonough, C. W., King, A. C., Cohen, R. A., Newman, A. B., Kritchevsky, S. B., Myers, V., Manini, T. M., et al. (2016) · The Journal of Frailty & Aging · doi:10.14283/jfa.2016.76 · Cited by 27
“The CES-D has shown a consistent factor structure across numerous patient populations and ethnic groups, which has been confirmed by meta-analysis [24].”
ResultImai, H., Furukawa, T. A., Hayashi, S.-U., Goto, A., Izumi, K., Hayashino, Y., Noda, M., & for the J-DOIT2 Study Group (2017) · Journal of Health Psychology · doi:10.1177/1359105317718057 · Cited by 28
“The CES-D is a validated scale and widely used in epidemiological and other types of studies (Radloff, 1977; Shafer, 2006).”
MethodBasquin, L., Maruani, J., Leseur, J., Mauries, S., Bazin, B., Pineau, G., Henry, C., Lejoyeux, M., & Geoffroy, P. A. (2024) · Bipolar Disorders · doi:10.1111/bdi.13429 · Cited by 27
“They also responded to self-reported questionnaires to investigate anxiety and mood symptoms: The Center for Epidemiological Studies-Depression (CES-D) 42,43 was used to assess the presence and severity of depressive symptoms.”
Silva, V. D., Ekanayake, S., & Hanwella, R. (2014) · Ceylon Medical Journal · doi:10.4038/cmj.v59i1.6732 · Cited by 25
“Factor analysis has shown that the specific depression symptom factors are relatively robust and well established [6].”
BackgroundJu, Y. J., Park, E., Ju, H.-J., Lee, S. A., Lee, J. E., Kim, W., Chun, S., & Kim, T. H. (2017) · Health Care For Women International · doi:10.1080/07399332.2017.1397672 · Cited by 26
“Depressive symptoms were measured annually using the 11-item Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CESD-11) that has been widely used in population-based studies (Shafer, 2006).”
MethodWeiss, B., Erritzøe, D., Giribaldi, B., Nutt, D., & Carhart-Harris, R. L. (2023) · Journal of Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1177/02698811231167848 · Cited by 26
“These results also provide further empirical support to, in our view, compelling calls for measurement of individual symptoms and facets of depression (Fried and Nesse, 2015) in view of lack of unidimensionality within the depression construct (Ballard et al., 2018; Fried et al., 2016b; Shafer, 2006), substantial diff…”
BackgroundResultSecondary Psychometric Examination of the Dimensional Obsessive-Compulsive Scale
Thibodeau, M., Leonard, R. C., Abramowitz, J., & Riemann, B. (2015) · Assessment (Odessa, Fla.) · doi:10.1177/1073191114559123 · Cited by 27
“This feature of the DOCS is similar to other brief symptom inventories that have multiple subscales and also clinically informative total scores (e.g., the OCI-R, Foa et al., 2002; the Beck Depression Inventory and Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression, Shafer, 2006).”
Udo, T., McKee, S. A., & Grilo, C. M. (2014) · General Hospital Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.genhosppsych.2014.11.011 · Cited by 26
“These three factors represent the pattern of clustering of different depression symptoms that is unique to comorbid obesity and BED, and can be informative, for example, in evaluating the effectiveness of treatment on different symptomatology [42].”
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Makhubela, M. S., & Mashegoane, S. (2015) · South African Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1177/0081246315611016 · Cited by 25
“While a number of studies have reported two-factor solutions, encompassing cognitive and somatic symptoms, others have supported a three-factor model (Shafer, 2006).”
BackgroundKrause, J. S., Saunders, L. L., Bombardier, C. H., & Kalpakjian, C. Z. (2011) · PM&R · doi:10.1016/j.pmrj.2011.03.003 · Cited by 25
“It also has been used to conduct comparison studies to determine treatment effectiveness for specific symptoms, the specificity of certain symptoms, or whether subgroups of patients can be distinguished on the basis of specific symptom factors [16].”
MethodCharlton, R. A., Lamar, M., Ajilore, O., & Kumar, A. (2013) · International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry · doi:10.1002/gps.3939 · Cited by 26
Distinguishing affective depersonalization from anhedonia in major depression and bipolar disorder
Mula, M., Pini, S., Calugi, S., Preve, M., Masini, M., Giovannini, I., Rucci, P., & Cassano, G. B. (2009) · Comprehensive Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2009.03.009 · Cited by 26
“Depression involves several psychopathological components, and different authors adopted a factor analysis approach to obtain a map of symptom components of depression [7-11].”
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“We failed to detect the predictive significance of depression in the model B might be resulted from possible colinearity among multiple covariates included in our models, especially concurrent comorbidities, as model A showed significant effects for CESD, depressed affect, and somatic complaints.”
BackgroundInfluentialWhat is anxious depression? Overlap and agreement between different definitions
Zimmerman, M. A., Kerr, S., Kiefer, R., Balling, C. E., & Dalrymple, K. L. (2018) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2018.11.028 · Cited by 26
Chung, K., Yu, B. Y., & Yeung, W. (2015) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2015.07.026 · Cited by 27
“Anxiety component includes agitation, anxiety psychic, anxiety somatic, and hypochondriasis (Shafer, 2006).”
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“AUC = area under curve; CI = confidence interval; NPV = negative predictive value; PPV = positive predictive value; SE = standard error Current psychiatric disorders were derived by structured clinical interview with the MINI (Sheehan et al., 1997, 1998); low positive affect, somatic anxiety, and general distress were…”
BackgroundMethodDiabetes, depression, and metabolic control in Latinas.
Olvera, A. E. P., Stewart, S. M., Galindo, L., & Stephens, J. (2007) · Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology · doi:10.1037/1099-9809.13.3.225 · Cited by 25
Brummett, B. H., Morey, M. C., Boyle, S. H., & Mark, D. B. (2009) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/gbp041 · Cited by 26
“A Sex × PE interaction term was initially included and removed if found to be nonsignifi cant.”
Andersen, E., Klusmann, H., Eisenlohr-Moul, T. A., Baresich, K. L., & Girdler, S. S. (2023) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s095457942300010x · Cited by 27
Dag, Y. N. O., Mehlig, K., Rosengren, A., Lissner, L., & Rosvall, M. (2019) · Journal of Psychosomatic Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2019.109888 · Cited by 26
Radiation Risk Analysis of Neuropsychiatric Disorders in Ukrainian Chornobyl Catastrophe Liquidators
Loganovsky, K., Masiuk, S. V., Buzunov, V., Marazziti, D., & Voychulene, Y. S. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2020.553420 · Cited by 24
Bondy, E., Baranger, D. A. A., Balbona, J. V., Sputo, K., Paul, S. E., Oltmanns, T. F., & Bogdan, R. (2021) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/abn0000618 · Cited by 25
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Assessing depression in youth at clinical high risk for psychosis: A comparison of three measures
DeVylder, J., Yang, L. H., Harkavy‐Friedman, J., Azimov, N., Walder, D. J., & Corcoran, C. M. (2013) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2013.12.002 · Cited by 25
“insomnia, anxiety, and somatic subscales of the HDRS (Shafer, 2006) in order to”
MethodInfluentialDepressed mood and blood pressure: The moderating effect of situation-specific arousal levels
Davydov, D. M., Stewart, R. J., Ritchie, K. A., & Chaudieu, I. (2012) · International Journal of Psychophysiology · doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2012.04.011 · Cited by 24
“Findings from previous studies have consistently suggested that the CES-D has a multi-dimensional structure with negative and positive valence items (e.g., Ostir et al., 2002; Radloff, 1977; Ross and Mirowsky, 1984; Shafer, 2006; Sheehan et al., 1995), which correspond to the negative and positive dimensions of other…”
BackgroundResultRice, S. P. M., & Fennell, B. S. (2020) · Journal of Well-Being Assessment · doi:10.1007/s41543-020-00025-1 · Cited by 24
Quality of life in major depressive disorder: the role of pain and pain catastrophizing cognition
Chung, K., Tso, K., Yeung, W., & Li, W. (2011) · Comprehensive Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2011.05.005 · Cited by 26
“The depression component includes 5 items—depressed mood, feeling of guilt, suicide, work and activities, and retardation—whereas the anxiety component includes agitation, anxiety psychic, anxiety somatic, and hypochondriasis [28].”
BackgroundKim, E. S., Wilkinson, R., Okuzono, S. S., Chen, Y., Shiba, K., Cowden, R. G., & VanderWeele, T. J. (2024) · PLoS Medicine · doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1004365 · Cited by 23
“…and also at pre-base-line (t 0 ; Wave I) using the positive affect subscale of the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression (CES-D) Scale—[23] a subscale that repeatedly emerges in factor analytic studies as illustrated in meta-analyses [24] and has been used repeatedly in past research [25].”
MethodFervaha, G., Zakzanis, K. K., Foussias, G., Agid, O., & Remington, G. J. (2015) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2015.09.002 · Cited by 22
“Depressive symptoms were also evaluated using the depressed affect factor derived from Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale (CES-D)(Radloff, 1977; Shafer, 2006).”
MethodValidation of a Romanian scale to detect antenatal depression
Wallis, A. B., Fernandez, R., Oprescu, F., Cherecheș, R. M., Zlati, A., & Dungy, C. I. (2011) · Open Medicine · doi:10.2478/s11536-011-0130-1 · Cited by 23
“The CES-D has been used globally in both clinical and population studies [20].”
MethodTully, P. J., Peters, R. K., Pérès, K., Anstey, K. J., & Tzourio, C. (2018) · International Psychogeriatrics · doi:10.1017/s1041610217002903 · Cited by 24
“A four factor structure proposed by Radloff (1977) is most commonly replicated (Shafer, 2006) representing somatic symptoms (seven items), depressed affect (seven items), low positive affect (four items, reverse keyed and then reverse scored), and interpersonal problems (two items).”
BackgroundA network analysis of the General Health Questionnaire
van Zyl, C. (2018) · Journal of Health Psychology · doi:10.1177/1359105318810113 · Cited by 23
“In addition, from a common-cause (hereafter used interchangeably with latent variable) model perspective, one would expect depression scales to be unidimensional; however, empirical analysis shows that they tend to be multidimensional (Bagby et al., 2004; Gullion and Rush, 1998; Shafer, 2006).”
BackgroundAssociations Between Depressive Symptom Dimensions and Smoking Dependence Motives
Mickens, L., Greenberg, J. B., Ameringer, K. J., Brightman, M., Sun, P., & Leventhal, A. M. (2010) · Evaluation & the Health Professions · doi:10.1177/0163278710383562 · Cited by 23
“…(CESD; Radloff, 1977), which includes negative affect (NA; sadness, anxiety, and distress), somatic features (SF; appetite and sleep irregularities), low positive affect (PA; reduced positive emotions and diminished pleasure), and interpersonal problems (IP; poor social adjustment; Shafer, 2006).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialAssessment of depression in a geriatric inpatient cohort: A comparison of the BDI and GDS
Bentz, B. G., & Hall, J. R. (2008) · DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) · Cited by 23
A Taxometric Study of the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale
Baldwin, G., & Shean, G. D. (2006) · Genetic Social and General Psychology Monographs · doi:10.3200/mono.132.2.101-128 · Cited by 23
Responsiveness to reward following cessation of smoking
Snuggs, S. J., & Hájek, P. (2012) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-012-2874-y · Cited by 23
“Reduced sensitivity to rewards is considered to be one of the two key components of depression, with the other one being negative affect (Shafer 2006).”
BackgroundTomitaka, S., Kawasaki, Y., & Furukawa, T. A. (2015) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2015-008599 · Cited by 22
Loganovsky, K., Bomko, M. O., Abramenko, I. V., Kuts, K., Belous, N. I., Masiuk, S. V., Gresko, M. V., Loganovska, T., Antypchuk, K. Y., Perchuk, I. V., et al. (2018) · Проблеми радіаційної медицини та радіобіології = Problems of Radiation Medicine and Radiobiology · doi:10.33145/2304-8336-2018-23-373-409 · Cited by 25
“➢ шкала самооцінки депресії Зунга (Zung SelfBRating Depression Scale, SDS) для визначення немаскованої депресії [80]; ➢ опитувальники для оцінки посттравматичного стреB сового розладу, ПТСР (Posttraumatic Stress Disorder, PTSD): шкала впливу подій Горовіца (Impact of Events Scale, IES) [81] і шкала «Дратівливість, деп…”
MethodThe Beck depression inventory: Uses and applications
Wang, Y., & Gorenstein, C. (2021) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-817933-8.00020-7 · Cited by 22
Thombs, B. D., Fuss, S., Hudson, M., Schieir, O., Taillefer, S., Fogel, J., Ford, D. E., & Baron, M. G. (2008) · Arthritis Care & Research · doi:10.1002/art.23328 · Cited by 22
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“Prior research has suggested that the BDI and the BAI are comprised of individual sub-factors (e.g., Osman et al. 1997; Shafer 2006) but it is important to note that discrepancies have arisen as to the number of factors each measure contains.”
MethodKlaassen, R. M. C., Velthorst, E., Nieman, D. H., de Haan, L., Becker, H. E., Dingemans, P. M. A. J., van de Fliert, J. R., van der Gaag, M., & LINSZEN, D. H. (2011) · Psychopathology · doi:10.1159/000325169 · Cited by 22
Ziarko, M., Kaczmarek, L. D., & Haładziński, P. (2014) · Current Issues in Personality Psychology · doi:10.5114/cipp.2013.40637 · Cited by 23
“It is a popular questionnaire, used to estimate the level of depression in clinical trials and epidemiological studies (Radloff, 1977).”
MethodInfluentialDyspnea, depression and health related quality of life in pulmonary arterial hypertension patients
Talwar, A., Sahni, S., Kim, E. J., Verma, S., & Kohn, N. E. (2015) · Journal of Exercise Rehabilitation · doi:10.12965/jer.150230 · Cited by 22
Maher, J. P., Ra, C. K., Leventhal, A. M., Hedeker, D., Huh, J., Chou, C., & Dunton, G. F. (2018) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/abn0000374 · Cited by 22
“Because deficient positive affect is a component of depression (Shafer, 2006), secondary analyses that utilized CESD depressive symptom subscales for somatic features, interpersonal problems, and negative affect were conducted to elucidate whether the Positive Affect Mean Variability Interaction term was associated wi…”
InfluentialCosh, S., Carrière, I., Naël, V., Tzourio, C., Delcourt, C., & Helmer, C. (2018) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2018.09.071 · Cited by 22
Morlet, É., Costemale-Lacoste, J.-F., Poulet, E., McMahon, K., Hoertel, N., Limosin, F., Adès, J., Alezrah, C., Amado, I., Amar, G., et al. (2019) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2019.08.056 · Cited by 22
Hoertel, N., Rotenberg, L., Blanco, C., Camus, V., Dubertret, C., Charlot, V., Schürhoff, F., Vandel, P., Limosin, F., CSA Study group, et al. (2020) · Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/s00127-020-01880-2 · Cited by 24
Gender differences in the relationship between affect and adolescent smoking uptake
Audrain-McGovern, J. E., Rodriguez, D., & Leventhal, A. M. (2014) · Addiction · doi:10.1111/add.12797 · Cited by 24
“The CESD subscales are appropriate measures of affective symptomatology [66], but whether our findings extend to other constructs in the affective spectrum, including positive and negative affective states that do not span behavioral and cognitive levels of functioning (e.”
BackgroundKim, J.-H., & Park, E. (2011) · Disability and Rehabilitation · doi:10.3109/09638288.2011.560333 · Cited by 21
“Shafer [46] reported that the somatic factor has a number of motivational variables (‘could not get going’ and ‘everything was an effort’) that proved to be fit items in this study.”
BackgroundResultLet's Talk About Sex: A Diary Investigation of Couples’ Intimacy Conflicts in the Home
Papp, L. M., Goeke-Morey, M. C., & Cummings, E. (2013) · Couple and Family Psychology Research and Practice · doi:10.1037/a0031465 · Cited by 21
“The CES-D was designed to measure depression in the general population, emphasizing affective and somatic symptoms (Shafer, 2006).”
MethodDu, X., Mao, Y., Ran, Q., Zhang, Q., Luo, Q., & Qiu, J. (2016) · Psychiatry Research Neuroimaging · doi:10.1016/j.pscychresns.2016.04.010 · Cited by 21
“Development and preliminary validation of an image-based instrument to assess depressive symptoms”
Marengo, D., Settanni, M., & Giannotta, F. (2019) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2019.02.059 · Cited by 21
Heinzel, A., Grimm, S., Beck, J., Schuepbach, D., Hell, D., Boesiger, P., Boeker, H., & Northoff, G. (2009) · Neuroscience Letters · doi:10.1016/j.neulet.2009.03.097 · Cited by 21
Lu, Y., Jiang, Y., & Gu, L. (2019) · Quality of Life Research · doi:10.1007/s11136-019-02207-8 · Cited by 20
Zhang, H., Palaniyappan, L. K., Wu, Y., Cong, E., Wu, C., Ding, L., Jin, F., Qiu, M., Huang, Y., Wu, Y., et al. (2020) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2020.05.148 · Cited by 20
The factor structure of the CES-D in a sample of Rwandan genocide survivors
Lacasse, J. J., Forgeard, M. J. C., Jayawickreme, N., & Jayawickreme, E. (2013) · Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/s00127-013-0766-z · Cited by 20
Dornbach‐Bender, A., Ruggero, C. J., Waszczuk, M. A., Gámez, W., Watson, D., & Kotov, R. (2017) · Comprehensive Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2017.06.011 · Cited by 22
Cytokines and depression in cancer patients and caregivers
Li, M., Kouzmina, E., McCusker, M., Rodin, D. L., Boutros, P. C., Paige, C. J., & Rodin, G. (2017) · Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment · doi:10.2147/ndt.s144774 · Cited by 23
“The Ham-D has been found to have a four-factor structure comprising anxiety, depression, insomnia, and somatic domains.(21) Only the depression (Ham-Dep: depressed mood, suicidal thoughts, guilt, work and interests, psychomotor retardation) and somatic (Ham-Som: gastrointestinal, general somatic, weight loss, sexual s…”
Ichijo, Y., Kono, S., Yoshihisa, A., Misaka, T., Kaneshiro, T., Oikawa, M., Miura, I., Yabe, H., & Takeishi, Y. (2020) · Journal of the American Heart Association · doi:10.1161/jaha.119.014564 · Cited by 20
Ghayas, S., Shamim, S., Anjum, F., & Hussain, M. (2014) · Tropical Journal of Pharmaceutical Research · doi:10.4314/tjpr.v13i10.24 · Cited by 20
“In Zung Self Rating Depression Scale, there are 20 questions having the response range from 1-4 which were then transformed to numeric points to assess the level of depression [14].”
MethodArbona, C., Burridge, A. B., & Olvera, N. E. (2017) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2017.05.024 · Cited by 20
Lubis, D. U., Jaya, E. S., Arjadi, R., Hanum, L., Astri, K., & Putri, M. D. D. (2013) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0057198 · Cited by 15
“CES-D is a self-report 20 items questionnaire that measures depressive symptomatology in general population, which includes positive affect, depressed or negative affect, somatic symptoms, and interpersonal problems[25,26].”
BackgroundDepression, quality of life and primary care: A cross-sectional study
Andriopoulos, P., Lotti-Lykousa, M., Pappa, E., Papadopoulos, A. A., & Niakas, D. A. (2013) · Journal of Epidemiology and Global Health · doi:10.1016/j.jegh.2013.06.004 · Cited by 20
“Self-evaluation scales were implemented that have been used and validated in various studies [11,12] and settings [9,10,13–18].”
Illness severity and biomarkers in depression: Using a unidimensional rating scale to examine BDNF
Caldieraro, M. A., Vares, E. A., de Souza, L. H., Spanemberg, L., Guerra, T. A., Wollenhaupt-Aguiar, B., Ferrari, P., Nierenberg, A. A., & Fleck, M. P. D. A. (2017) · Comprehensive Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2017.02.014 · Cited by 20
Meta-Analysis of the Symptom Structure of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder
Bloch, M. H., Landeros‐Weisenberger, A., do Rosário, M. C., Pittenger, C., & Leckman, J. F. (2015) · FOCUS The Journal of Lifelong Learning in Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.focus.130209 · Cited by 20
Depressive symptoms of house-poor persons: Korean panel data evidence
Lee, T.-H., Park, E., Kim, W., Kim, J., Shin, J., & Kim, T. H. (2016) · International Journal of Social Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/0020764016653773 · Cited by 19
“The CESD-11 scale was originally designed to measure depressive symptoms in the general population (Radloff, 1977) and has been widely used in community and clinical samples (Shafer, 2006).”
MethodScherf‐Clavel, M., Hommers, L. G., Wurst, C., Stonawski, S., Deckert, J., Domschke, K., Unterecker, S., & Menke, A. (2020) · Journal of Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1177/0269881120936509 · Cited by 20
Huang, L., Tang, S. N., Rietkerk, J., Appadurai, V., Krebs, M. D., Schork, A. J., Werge, T. M., Zuber, V., Kendler, K. S., & Cai, N. (2023) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2023.11.021 · Cited by 22
“This is consistent with previous factor analyses based on phenotypic covariances which, though not always consistent with each other 34 , generally identify factors that group dysphoric, neurovegetative, and psychomotor symptoms/signs of MDD 12,35,36 .”
Performance of the NINDS-CSN 5-Minute Protocol in a National Population-Based Sample
Kennedy, R., Wadley, V. G., McClure, L. A., Letter, A. J., Unverzagt, F. W., Crowe, M. G., Nyenhius, D., Kelley, B. J., Kana, B., Marceaux, J. C., et al. (2014) · Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society · doi:10.1017/s1355617714000733 · Cited by 18
“, 1993), a standard survey measure of depressive symptoms in older adults (Shafer, 2006).”
Ehrmann, D., SCHMITT, A. J., Reimer, A., Haak, T., Kulzer, B., & Hermanns, N. (2017) · Acta Diabetologica · doi:10.1007/s00592-017-1006-x · Cited by 18
“The items can be clustered to different subtypes of depressive symptoms [29]: seven items assessing affective symptoms (feeling blue, sad, depressed, fearful, lonely, thought of life as a failure, having crying spells);”
BackgroundMethodSeconda, L., Péneau, S., Bénard, M., Allès, B., Herçberg, S., Galan, P., Lairon, D., Baudry, J., & Kesse‐Guyot, E. (2017) · Preventive Medicine Reports · doi:10.1016/j.pmedr.2017.10.014 · Cited by 20
Interventions efficaces en psychologie positive: Une revue systématique.
Sitbon, A., Shankland, R., & Martin‐Krumm, C. (2018) · Canadian Psychology/Psychologie canadienne · doi:10.1037/cap0000163 · Cited by 28
Metadata
- Authors
- Shafer, A. B.
- Corresponding author
- Shafer, Alan B.
- Venue
- Journal of Clinical Psychology
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2005
- Volume
- 62
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 123-146
- ISSN
- 0021-9762 (ISSN-L)
- 1097-4679
- OpenAlex
- W2170701421
- Cited by
- 837
- References
- 111
- Citations by year
- 2026: 31 · 2025: 23 · 2024: 34 · 2023: 35 · 2022: 25 · 2021: 28 · 2020: 49 · 2019: 51 · 2018: 76 · 2017: 58 · 2016: 49 · 2015: 51 · 2014: 61 · 2013: 69 · 2012: 45
- FWCI
- 2.17
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Clinical Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Mental Health Research Topics
- Keywords
- factor structure, Beck Depression Inventory, CES-D, Hamilton Depression Rating Scale, Zung Self-Rating Depression Scale, depression severity, somatic symptoms, positive affect
- MeSH terms
- Depressive Disorder, Factor Analysis, Statistical, Humans, Psychological Tests, Surveys and Questionnaires
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