Psychometric perspectives on diagnostic systems

“qgraph was developed in the context of network approaches to psychometrics (Cramer et al. 2010; Borsboom 2008; Schmittmann et al. 2012), in which theoretical constructs in psychology are hypothesized to be networks of causally coupled variables.”

“Thus, rather than interpreting symptoms as measurements of a latent disorder (as is depicted in Figure 1; see Table 1 for the accompanying legend), symptoms are viewed as part of a causal system (Borsboom 2008a).”

“…et al.’s work, that psychiatric disorders are not likely to be explained in terms of one dysfunctional brain area, bears a striking resemblance to recent attempts at formulating psychiatric disorders as networks of causally related symptoms (Borsboom 2008; Cramer et al. 2010; Kendler et al. 2011).”

“Hence, such models are consistent with the hypothesis that we may one day find out “what depression really is”; that is, latent variables may “become” observed through a refinement of the conceptual and measurement apparatus used to study them (e.g., Bollen 2002; Borsboom 2008).”

“Recently a new kind of network has been introduced: the psychological network (Borsboom, 2008; Borsboom & Cramer, 2013; Cramer, Waldorp, van der Maas, & Borsboom, 2010).”

“It seems obvious that causal interactions among symptoms abounde an assumption prohibited by the axiom of local independence that justifies inference to a latent variable as their common cause of symptom covariance (Borsboom, 2008).”

“Although this scientific discipline is young, with its conceptual roots in 2008 [1] and its empirical foundations in 2010 [2], it is fast-moving and has gained considerable recognition.”

“From this perspective, symptoms are not passive indicators of a latent ‘common cause’; they are agents in a causal system (Borsboom, 2008; Kendler, 2016; Kendler, Zachar, & Craver, 2011).”

“constructs are conceptualized as networks of interacting components instead of measurements of a latent construct, as hypothesized in traditional perspectives [1–6].”

“Psychiatric diagnoses do not have explanatory power and do not capture the complex causal relationships within and between the genetic, neurophysiological, and behavioral features that characterize mental illness.(13) The overlap in symptoms between diagnoses and the cooccurrence of disorders suggest that there are “n…”

“causal effects, semantic overlap, or reciprocal interactions between putative indicators of a latent variable (Borsboom, 2008; Cramer et al., 2010; Borsboom et al., 2011; Cramer et al., 2012; Schmittmann et al., 2013).”

“Whereas the philosophy of biology is the source of the MPC concept, Borsboom (2008) advocates a similar approach to psychiatric disorders from a psychometric perspective.”

“Third, the symptoms of mental disorders frequently violate the axiom of local independence integral to latent variable approaches (Borsboom, 2008; Borsboom et al., 2009).”

“The cause of comorbidity is a puzzle, which may have its roots in the very conceptualization of what a mental disorder is [9,16].”

“, see [13][18]), current network models extend this earlier theoretical work with a coherent framework hypothesized to deliver a blueprint for the development of a multitude of mental disorders [8][12].”

“In fact, symptoms such as these continue to demonstrate robust associations with one another in adults even in the absence of a major depressive episode (Borsboom, 2008; Santos, Fried, Asafu-Adjei, & Ruiz, 2017).”

“…but we do object to a latent variable ‘theory’ in which the measurement model with a common cause structure is interpreted as evidence for latent causal entities that operate in the minds of individuals, causing all sorts of cognitive, affective and behavioural patterns (see also Borsboom, 2008b).”

“According to this model, symptoms of a given disorder are assumed to share an essential property; namely, their causal dependence on a latent variable, from which all symptoms arise (Borsboom, 2008; Kendler et al. 2011).”

“That is, the covariance among symptoms must disappear if one conditionalizes on the presence of the disorder (Borsboom, 2008).”

“Psychiatric diagnoses are theoretical constructs developed to help understand the co-occurrence of psychiatric symptoms and other psychopathological processes (Borsboom, 2008).”

“This ‘reflective odel’ is the prevailing perspective with which psychopathology s currently viewed and understood (Borsboom & Cramer, 2013; orsboom, 2008; Cramer, Waldorp, van der Maas, & Borsboom, 010).”

“This, in turn, implies that symptoms are unlikely to be measurements of one underlying disorder (Borsboom, 2008; Fried, 2015), which is consistent with research documenting that individual depression symptoms differ in important dimensions such as their risk factors (Fried, Nesse, Zivin, Guille, & Sen, 2014; Lux & Ken…”

“In contrast to both the traditional latent categorical (e.g. Guze, 1992) and latent dimensional (e.g. Helzer et al. 2008) modelsofmentaldisorder, the network perspective does not view symptoms as reflective of an underlying disease entity (Borsboom, 2008; Borsboom & Cramer, 2013).”

“The (Ising) network model differs markedly from the common cause model that is traditionally used in psychopathology, which represents the observed dependence and independence relations using latent variables (Borsboom, 2008).”

“This representation supports the theoretical perspective, often referred to as the network approach (Borsboom, 2008, 2017), that psychological attributes are complex systems of observable behaviours that dynamically and mutually reinforce one another (Schmittmann et al., 2013).”

“symptoms to disorder is not one of cause and effect; it is mereological – part(s) to whole (Borsboom, 2008).”

“Our mental disorders are no more than fallible (if undeniably very useful) social constructs (Borsboom 2008, Borsboom et al. 2003, Maddux et al. 2008).”

“From a network approach, a psychiatric disorder is conceptualized as being characterized by a constellation of symptoms, in contrast to a single underlying “essence” or construct from which all other symptoms arise (Borsboom, 2008; Kendler, Zachar, & Craver, 2011).”

“…at Greensboro, Greensboro, NC 27402, USA 2 University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, USA attributes proposing that observable variables co-occur because they reciprocally and dynamically reinforce one another, forming a causally connected system (Borsboom, 2008; van der Maas et al., 2006).”

“In a network conception, symptoms are understood as potentially causal agents in their own right (Borsboom, 2008; Borsboom, 2017).”

“Contrary to the diagnostic classification system [44], the goal of this model is to use a data-driven approach to determine constructs that aid in the understanding and classification of mental disorders.”

“It was originally motivated by work on the theory of psychological measurement (77) and diagnostic systems (78), which described problems with a view of psychiatric disorders (78) or personality dimensions (41) that sees them as arising from a single hidden factor.”

“Unfortunately, these latent models have serious theoretical and psychometric limitations (Borsboom, 2008).”

“The classification manuals advanced the field tremendously, but they have also been criticised for their lack of reliability, validity, and clinical utility (e.g., Borsboom, 2008; Lilienfeld, 2014).”

“Traditional conceptualizations of psychopathology hold that psychiatric disorders are reflected by the assumption that patients’ and cooccurring symptoms have related underlying common causes (Borsboom, 2008; Schmittmann et al., 2013).”

“Traditional perspectives on psychopathology presumed that some co-occurring symptoms originate from an underlying common cause [60,61].”

“Also, the proximity of the nodes in the network indicates the closeness of constructs with multiple reciprocal relationships (Epskamp et al., 2012; Borsboom, 2008).”

“An NM conceptualizes HRQoL as a network of mutually interacting characteristics [28].”

“According to network theory, a mental disorder is the presentation of interactions between symptoms (Borsboom, 2008; Borsboom & Cramer, 2013).”

“The analogy to cognitive systems can be extended to systems of psychopathology as well (Borsboom, 2008; Cramer, Waldorp, van der Maas, & Borsboom, 2010; Schmittmann et al., 2013).”

“From this view, the relationship between items and Openness to Experience is mereological: items do not measure Openness to Experience but are part of it [22].”

“In this regard, high hopes were especially put in the concept of node centrality [11], an indicator of the importance of different nodes within a specific network [16].”

“In other words, depressive symptoms co-occur without the need of a latent variable, and can reinforce each other, leading to a depressive state (Borsboom, 2008; Borsboom & Cramer, 2013).”

“They are called the principle of local independence (Borsboom, 2005, 2008; Borsboom et al., 2003) and the assumption of exchangeability (Bollen & Lennox, 1991; Borsboom, 2008; Borsboom et al., 2003).”

“…including all symptoms, utilizing analytic methods associated with Borsboom et al.’s network approach to psychometric theory and comorbidity studies (Borsboom, 2008; Borsboom & Cramer, 2013; Borsboom, Cramer, Schmittmann, Epskamp, & Waldorp, 2011; Cramer, Waldrop, Van der Maas, & Borsboom, 2010;…”

“…variables, measurement models, or differential item functioning (Guyatt & Rennie, 2002; Straus et al., 2011), despite the fact that these methods are clearly relevant to situations where the ‘‘gold standard’’ criterion diagnosis is missing or flawed (Borsboom, 2008; Kraemer, 1992; Pepe, 2003).”

“As Borsboom and colleagues observed (e.g., Borsboom, 2008; Borsboom & Cramer, 2013; Schmittmann et al., 2013), this constitutes a reflective model of the relation between a latent dimension and its indicators (Bollen & Lennox, 1991; Edwards & Bagozzi, 2000) such that trait anxiety presumably causes…”

“…gained momentum with the publication of the mutualism model of intelligence (Van Der Maas et al., 2006) and network perspective on psychopathology (Borsboom, 2008; Borsboom et al., 2011; Cramer et al., 2010), giving rise to a new subfield of quantitative psychology called network psychometrics…”

“The network approach to psychopathology (Borsboom 2008, 2017; Borsboom and Cramer 2013) offers a radically new way of understanding SAD.”

“…(van der Maas et al., 2017), mutualism – the idea of dynamic coupling between cognitive abilities – aligns neatly with some of the latest and most rapid developments in psychometrics, namely psychometric network modeling (Borsboom, 2008; Epskamp, Cramer, Waldorp, Schmittmann, & Borsboom, 2012).”

“Although this common cause model is clearly appropriate for some diseases such as those caused by pathogens, the utility of this perspective for psychopathology has been increasingly questioned (Borsboom 2008; Kendler et al. 2011).”

“The latent variable approach to psychological attributes rests on the axiom of local independence (Borsboom, 2008).”

“While there are numerous measures of centrality, the measurement utilized in this study is strength centrality, which sums the strength of all the edges connected to a node (Epskamp, Maris, Waldorp, & Borsboom, 2018). Bringmann et al. (2019) review the suitability of centrality indices in psychological networks and ar…”

“First, network analysis allows one to unravel complex psychological phenomena through a bottom-up analysis of the different symptoms or behaviors and their associations with each other (Borsboom, 2008; Cramer et al., 2010).”

“It can quickly be verified that the resulting expression in equation (12) is identical to the distribution for the Curie-Weiss model introduced in equation (3), with the same normalising constant as given in equation (4).”

“…10 年 来, 网络分析的方法已在人格心理学、社会心理学和临床心理学等领域得到一定的应用。未来研究应继续发 展和完善网络分析模型的理论和方法, 使之运用到更多的数据类型和更广的研究领域中。 关键词 网络分析; 潜变量模型; 心理测量; 临床心理学; 人格特质 分类号 B841 1 引言 准确地描述和解释人类心理与行为是科学心 理学的主要目标之一。在过去几十年中, 研究者 采用潜变量模型(latent variables model) 1来描述和 测量人类心理与行为并取得了丰硕的成果。例如, 人 格 心 理 学 中 的 大 五 人 格 模 型…”

“fundamentally categorical approaches, seeing the categories merely to represent groups of individuals who are relatively similar phenotypically (Borsboom 2008; Volkmar et al. 2014).”

“In traditional approaches to understanding the psychopathology of depression and anxiety, symptoms are secondary to an underlying common cause (Borsboom, 2008; Schmittmann et al., 2013).”

“Borsboom (2008) faced exactly this challenge when discussing the relation between symptoms and mental disorders in clinical settings, concluding that the relationship between certain disorders and their symptoms was not one of measurement but of mereology.”

“…have recently gained popularity in survey design as an alternative to confirmatory and exploratory factor analyses (e.g., van Borkulo et al., 2015; Borsboom, 2008; Boschloo, van Borkulo, Borsboom, & Schoevers, 2016; Cramer, Waldorp, van der Maas, & Borsboom, 2010; van der Maas et al., 2006;…”

“(Borsboom, 2008; Borsboom, Cramer, Schmittmann, Epskamp, & Waldorp, 2011), in part, reflecting a general rise in complex systems research across many disciplines.”

“RF -max_depth: the maximum depth of the tree [1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 80] -max_features: the number of features to consider when looking for the best split [2, 3, 5, 10] -min_samples_leaf: the minimum number of samples required to be at a leaf node [1, 2, 3, 4, 5] -min_samples_split: the minimum number of samples required to…”

“In recent years, a new framework for analyzing and understanding psychopathology was introduced; the network approach (Armour et al., 2017; Borsboom, 2008; Fried et al., 2016; McNally, 2016).”

“Therefore, there is some-thing to be said for calculating such a composite score, from a constructivist perspective (Borsboom, 2008).”

“The dominant explanation in the field has been that these relations stem from a shared causal origin, a perspective termed the common cause framework [1, 2].”

“sity is not adequately captured by diagnostic disorder categories or the associated disease model, which holds that a given pathology can be explained by a single underlying cause [9].”

“…of the mutualism model of intelligence (Van Der Maas et al., 2006) and the proposition of the network perspective of psychopathological constructs (Borsboom, 2008; Borsboom & Cramer, 2013; Cramer, Waldorp, Van Der Maas, & Borsboom, 2010; Fried et al., 2017) as well as being employed in clinical…”