The DOI matches its Crossref record; 69 of the 71 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Twenty‐five pitfalls in the analysis of diffusion MRI data
Open accessAbstract
Obtaining reliable data and drawing meaningful and robust inferences from diffusion MRI can be challenging and is subject to many pitfalls. The process of quantifying diffusion indices and eventually comparing them between groups of subjects and/or correlating them with other parameters starts at the acquisition of the raw data, followed by a long pipeline of image processing steps. Each one of these steps is susceptible to sources of bias, which may not only limit the accuracy and precision, but can lead to substantial errors. This article provides a detailed review of the steps along the analysis pipeline and their associated pitfalls. These are grouped into pre‐processing of data; estimation of the tensor; derivation of voxelwise quantitative parameters; strategies for extracting quantitative parameters; and finally intra‐subject and inter‐subject comparison, including region of interest, histogram, tract‐specific and voxel‐based analyses. The article covers important aspects of diffusion MRI analysis, such as motion correction, susceptibility and eddy current distortion correction, model fitting, region of interest placement, histogram and voxel‐based analysis. We have assembled 25 pitfalls (several previously unreported) into a single article, which should serve as a useful reference for those embarking on new diffusion MRI‐based studies, and as a check for those who may already be running studies but may have overlooked some important confounds. While some of these problems are well known to diffusion experts, they might not be to other researchers wishing to undertake a clinical study based on diffusion MRI. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“as pointed out by Jeurissen et al. (2013), even regions with crossing fibers, many observed differences/changes in FA, AD and/or RD are likely to reflect actual anatomical and biophysical phenomena, as long as other pitfalls in the acquisition and analysis have been avoided (Jones and Cercignani, 2010).”
From Potential Pitfalls of Using Fractional Anisotropy, Axial Diffusivity, and Radial Diffusivity as Biomarkers of Cerebral White Matter Microstructure (2022) · cites this paper as Jones and Cercignani, 2010
In the citing paper
“While DTI based tractography (Basser et al., 2000) has been widely applied, it has difficulties in resolving fibre tracking in areas with mixed fibre orientations due to, for instance, intra-voxel fibre crossing (Jones and Cercignani, 2010; Jeurissen et al., 2017).”
From The cingulum bundle: Anatomy, function, and dysfunction (2018) · cites this paper as Jones and Cercignani, 2010
In the citing paper
“While DTI has provided extraordinary insights into the WM structure of the brain in both health and disease, the interpretation of diffusion data is often hampered by several important limitations and challenges (Beaulieu, 2002; Jones and Cercignani, 2010). Primary among these limitations is a lack of understanding of the actual biological sources underlying widely used DTI-derived measures.”
From The role of myelination in measures of white matter integrity: Combination of diffusion tensor imaging and two-photon microscopy of CLARITY intact brains (2017) · cites this paper as Jones and Cercignani, 2010
In the citing paper
“Moreover, diffusion-weighted imaging has many limitations and sources of error at each step of the analysis pipeline that must be considered when interpreting results236, 237.”
From Imaging structural and functional brain development in early childhood (2018) · cites this paper as [236]
Citations
Cites
Data Reduction and Error Analysis for the Physical Sciences
Bevington, P. R., Robinson, D. K., Blair, J. M., Mallinckrodt, A. J., & McKay, S. R. (1993) · Computers in Physics · doi:10.1063/1.4823194 · Cited by 15,003
Statistical parametric maps in functional imaging: A general linear approach
Friston, K. J., Holmes, A. P., Worsley, K. J., Poline, J. ‐., Frith, C. D., & Frackowiak, R. S. J. (1994) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.460020402 · Cited by 9,688
Voxel-Based Morphometry—The Methods
Ashburner, J., & Friston, K. J. (2000) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1006/nimg.2000.0582 · Cited by 8,676
Tract-based spatial statistics: Voxelwise analysis of multi-subject diffusion data
Smith, S. M., Jenkinson, M., Johansen‐Berg, H., Rueckert, D., Nichols, T. E., Mackay, C. E., Watkins, K. E., Ciccarelli, O., Cader, M. Z., Matthews, P. M., et al. (2006) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2006.02.024 · Cited by 6,598
SENSE: Sensitivity encoding for fast MRI
Pruessmann, K. P., Weiger, M., Scheidegger, M. B., & Boesiger, P. (1999) · Magnetic Resonance in Medicine · doi:10.1002/(sici)1522-2594(199911)42:5 · Cited by 6,303
Nonparametric permutation tests for functional neuroimaging: A primer with examples
Nichols, T. E., & Holmes, A. P. (2002) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.1058 · Cited by 6,256
MR diffusion tensor spectroscopy and imaging
Basser, P. J., Mattiello, J., & LeBihan, D. (1994) · Biophysical Journal · doi:10.1016/s0006-3495(94)80775-1 · Cited by 5,970
Generalized autocalibrating partially parallel acquisitions (GRAPPA)
Griswold, M. A., Jakob, P. M., Heidemann, R. M., Nittka, M., Jellús̆, V., Wang, J., Kiefer, B., & Haase, A. (2002) · Magnetic Resonance in Medicine · doi:10.1002/mrm.10171 · Cited by 5,311
Thresholding of statistical maps in functional neuroimaging using the false discovery rate
Genovese, C. R., Lazar, N. A., & Nichols, T. (2002) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1006/nimg.2001.1037 · Cited by 4,923
(1982) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/c2009-0-21955-6 · Cited by 4,628
On the Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test for Normality with Mean and Variance Unknown
Lilliefors, H. W. (1967) · Journal of the American Statistical Association · doi:10.2307/2283970 · Cited by 4,530
Numerical Recipes in C: The Art of Scientific Computing.
Birchenhall, C. R., Press, W. H., Teukolsky, S. A., Vetterling, W. T., & Flannery, B. P. (1994) · The Economic Journal · doi:10.2307/2234664 · Cited by 4,355
Le Bihan, D., Breton, E., Lallemand, D., Grenier, P., Cabanis, E., & Laval-Jeantet, M. (1986) · Radiology · doi:10.1148/radiology.161.2.3763909 · Cited by 3,912
Estimation of the Effective Self-Diffusion Tensor from the NMR Spin Echo
Basser, P. J., Mattiello, J., & Bihan, D. L. (1994) · Journal of Magnetic Resonance Series B · doi:10.1006/jmrb.1994.1037 · Cited by 3,656
Diffusion tensor MR imaging of the human brain
Pierpaoli, C., Jezzard, P., Basser, P. J., Barnett, A., & Di Chiro, G. (1996) · Radiology · doi:10.1148/radiology.201.3.8939209 · Cited by 2,664
The rician distribution of noisy mri data
Guðbjartsson, H., & Patz, S. (1995) · Magnetic Resonance in Medicine · doi:10.1002/mrm.1910340618 · Cited by 2,498
Toward a quantitative assessment of diffusion anisotropy
Pierpaoli, C. M., & Basser, P. J. (1996) · Magnetic Resonance in Medicine · doi:10.1002/mrm.1910360612 · Cited by 2,392
Simultaneous acquisition of spatial harmonics (SMASH): Fast imaging with radiofrequency coil arrays
Sodickson, D. K., & Manning, W. J. (1997) · Magnetic Resonance in Medicine · doi:10.1002/mrm.1910380414 · Cited by 2,145
A three-dimensional statistical analysis for CBF activation studies in human brain
Worsley, K. J., Evans, A. C., Marrett, S., & Neelin, P. (1992) · Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow & Metabolism · doi:10.1038/jcbfm.1992.127 · Cited by 2,036
Correction for geometric distortion in echo planar images from B0 field variations
Jezzard, P., & Balaban, R. S. (1995) · Magnetic Resonance in Medicine · doi:10.1002/mrm.1910340111 · Cited by 1,428
The B‐matrix must be rotated when correcting for subject motion in DTI data
Leemans, A., & Jones, D. K. (2009) · Magnetic Resonance in Medicine · doi:10.1002/mrm.21890 · Cited by 1,266
Self-citationReduction of eddy‐current‐induced distortion in diffusion MRI using a twice‐refocused spin echo
Reese, T. G., Heid, O., Weisskoff, R. M., & Wedeen, V. J. (2002) · Magnetic Resonance in Medicine · doi:10.1002/mrm.10308 · Cited by 1,229
Free water elimination and mapping from diffusion MRI
Pasternak, O., Sochen, N., Gur, Y., Intrator, N., & Assaf, Y. (2009) · Magnetic Resonance in Medicine · doi:10.1002/mrm.22055 · Cited by 1,092
Why Voxel-based morphometry should be used
Ashburner, J., & Friston, K. J. (2001) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1006/nimg.2001.0961 · Cited by 842
Jones, D. K. (2004) · Magnetic Resonance in Medicine · doi:10.1002/mrm.20033 · Cited by 794
Self-citation“Voxel-Based Morphometry” Should Not Be Used with Imperfectly Registered Images
Bookstein, F. L. (2001) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1006/nimg.2001.0770 · Cited by 665
Spatial transformations of diffusion tensor magnetic resonance images
Alexander, D. C., Pierpaoli, C., Basser, P. J., & Gee, J. C. (2001) · IEEE Transactions on Medical Imaging · doi:10.1109/42.963816 · Cited by 610
“Squashing peanuts and smashing pumpkins”: How noise distorts diffusion‐weighted MR data
Jones, D. K., & Basser, P. J. (2004) · Magnetic Resonance in Medicine · doi:10.1002/mrm.20283 · Cited by 590
Self-citationSmith, S. M., Johansen‐Berg, H., Jenkinson, M., Rueckert, D., Nichols, T. E., Miller, K. L., Robson, M. D., Jones, D. K., Klein, J. C., Bartsch, A. J., et al. (2007) · Nature Protocols · doi:10.1038/nprot.2007.45 · Cited by 582
Self-citationThe effect of filter size on VBM analyses of DT-MRI data
Jones, D. K., Symms, M. R., Cercignani, M., & Howard, R. J. (2005) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2005.02.013 · Cited by 562
Self-citationComprehensive approach for correction of motion and distortion in diffusion‐weighted MRI
Rohde, G. K., Barnett, A. S., Basser, P. J., Marenco, S., & Pierpaoli, C. M. (2003) · Magnetic Resonance in Medicine · doi:10.1002/mrm.10677 · Cited by 527
Studying connections in the living human brain with diffusion MRI
Jones, D. K. (2008) · Cortex · doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2008.05.002 · Cited by 497
Self-citationDavatzikos, C. A. (2004) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2004.05.010 · Cited by 435
A technique for accurate magnetic resonance imaging in the presence of field inhomogeneities
Chang, H.-H., & Fitzpatrick, J. M. (1992) · IEEE Transactions on Medical Imaging · doi:10.1109/42.158935 · Cited by 426
Determining and visualizing uncertainty in estimates of fiber orientation from diffusion tensor MRI
Jones, D. K. (2002) · Magnetic Resonance in Medicine · doi:10.1002/mrm.10331 · Cited by 371
Self-citationCorrection for distortion of echo‐planar images used to calculate the apparent diffusion coefficient
Haselgrove, J. C., & Moore, J. R. (1996) · Magnetic Resonance in Medicine · doi:10.1002/mrm.1910360620 · Cited by 325
Challenges and limitations of quantifying brain connectivity in vivo with diffusion MRI
Jones, D. K. (2010) · Imaging in Medicine · doi:10.2217/iim.10.21 · Cited by 321
Self-citationShimony, J. S., McKinstry, R. C., Akbudak, E., Aronovitz, J. A., Snyder, A. Z., Lori, N. F., Cull, T. S., & Conturo, T. E. (1999) · Radiology · doi:10.1148/radiology.212.3.r99au51770 · Cited by 310
Diffusion tensor imaging using single‐shot SENSE‐EPI
Bammer, R., Auer, M., Keeling, S. L., Augustin, M., Stables, L. A., PROKESCH, R. W., Stollberger, R., Moseley, M. E., & Fazekas, F. (2002) · Magnetic Resonance in Medicine · doi:10.1002/mrm.10184 · Cited by 279
A Model-Based Method for Retrospective Correction of Geometric Distortions in Diffusion-Weighted EPI
Andersson, J., & Skare, S. T. (2002) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1006/nimg.2001.1039 · Cited by 273
A Diffusion Tensor Imaging Study of Fasciculi in Schizophrenia
Shergill, S. S., Kanaan, R., Chitnis, X. A., O’Daly, O., Jones, D. K., Frangou, S., Williams, S. C., Howard, R. J., Barker, G. J., Murray, R. M. L., et al. (2007) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.164.3.467 · Cited by 254
Self-citationJones, D. K., Catani, M., Pierpaoli, C. M., Reeves, S., Shergill, S. S., O'Sullivan, M. J., Golesworthy, P., McGuire, P. K., Horsfield, M. A., Simmons, A., et al. (2005) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.20179 · Cited by 233
Self-citationCorrection of off resonance‐related distortion in echo‐planar imaging using EPI‐based field maps
Reber, P. J., Wong, E. C., Buxton, R. B., & Frank, L. R. (1998) · Magnetic Resonance in Medicine · doi:10.1002/mrm.1910390223 · Cited by 224
Bhagat, Y. A., & Beaulieu, C. (2004) · Journal of Magnetic Resonance Imaging · doi:10.1002/jmri.20102 · Cited by 208
Spatial normalization of diffusion tensor MRI using multiple channels
Park, H. (2003) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2003.08.008 · Cited by 199
Morgan, P. S., Bowtell, R. W., McIntyre, D. J. O., & Worthington, B. S. (2004) · Journal of Magnetic Resonance Imaging · doi:10.1002/jmri.20032 · Cited by 189
A study of rotationally invariant and symmetric indices of diffusion anisotropy
Papadakis, N. G., Xing, D., Houston, G. C., Smith, J. M., Smith, M. I., James, M. F., Parsons, A. A., Huang, C. L.-H., Hall, L. D., & Carpenter, T. A. (1999) · Magnetic Resonance Imaging · doi:10.1016/s0730-725x(99)00029-6 · Cited by 179
Distortion correction for diffusion‐weighted MRI tractography and fMRI in the temporal lobes
Embleton, K. V., Haroon, H. A., Morris, D. M., Ralph, M. A. L., & Parker, G. J. M. (2010) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.20959 · Cited by 167
Tract-specific anisotropy measurements in diffusion tensor imaging
Kanaan, R., Shergill, S. S., Barker, G. J., Catani, M., Ng, V., Howard, R. J., McGuire, P. K., & Jones, D. K. (2005) · Psychiatry Research Neuroimaging · doi:10.1016/j.pscychresns.2005.11.002 · Cited by 163
Self-citationPASTA: Pointwise assessment of streamline tractography attributes
Jones, D. K., Travis, A. R., Eden, G., Pierpaoli, C. M., & Basser, P. J. (2005) · Magnetic Resonance in Medicine · doi:10.1002/mrm.20484 · Cited by 135
Self-citationFujiwara, H., Namiki, C., Hirao, K., Miyata, J., Shimizu, M., Fukuyama, H., Sawamoto, N., Hayashi, T., & Murai, T. (2007) · Schizophrenia Research · doi:10.1016/j.schres.2007.05.044 · Cited by 126
Mapping eddy current induced fields for the correction of diffusion-weighted echo planar images
Horsfield, M. A. (1999) · Magnetic Resonance Imaging · doi:10.1016/s0730-725x(99)00077-6 · Cited by 116
Hasan, K. M., Alexander, A. L., & Narayana, P. A. (2004) · Magnetic Resonance in Medicine · doi:10.1002/mrm.10682 · Cited by 115
Lee, C. E. C., Danielian, L. E., Thomasson, D. M., & Baker, E. H. (2008) · Neuroradiology · doi:10.1007/s00234-008-0441-3 · Cited by 110
Bastin, M. E. (1999) · Magnetic Resonance Imaging · doi:10.1016/s0730-725x(99)00026-0 · Cited by 105
Malykhin, N. V., Concha, L., Seres, P., Beaulieu, C., & Coupland, N. J. (2008) · Psychiatry Research Neuroimaging · doi:10.1016/j.pscychresns.2007.11.007 · Cited by 104
Cross‐subject comparison of principal diffusion direction maps
Schwartzman, A., Dougherty, R. F., & Taylor, J. (2005) · Magnetic Resonance in Medicine · doi:10.1002/mrm.20503 · Cited by 102
Highly diffusion‐sensitized MRI of brain: Dissociation of gray and white matter
Yoshiura, T., Wu, O., Zaheer, A., Reese, T. G., & Sorensen, A. G. (2001) · Magnetic Resonance in Medicine · doi:10.1002/mrm.1100 · Cited by 101
MR properties of rat sciatic nerve following trauma
Stanisz, G. J., Midha, R., Munro, C. A., & Henkelman, R. M. (2001) · Magnetic Resonance in Medicine · doi:10.1002/1522-2594(200103)45:3 · Cited by 96
Deformable registration of DT-MRI data based on transformation invariant tensor characteristics
Guimond, A., Guttmann, C. R. G., Warfield, S. K., & Westin, C. (2003) · IEEE International Symposium on Biomedical Imaging (ISBI) · doi:10.1109/isbi.2002.1029369 · Cited by 82
Kawashima, T., Nakamura, M., Bouix, S., Kubicki, M., Salisbury, D. F., Westin, C.-F., McCarley, R. W., & Shenton, M. E. (2009) · Schizophrenia Research · doi:10.1016/j.schres.2009.01.014 · Cited by 65
Reproducibility of brain ADC histograms
Steens, S. C. A., Behloul, F., Schaap, J. A., Hoogenraad, F. G. C., Wheeler‐Kingshott, C. A. M. G., le Cessie, S., Tofts, P. S., & van Buchem, M. A. (2003) · European Radiology · doi:10.1007/s00330-003-2121-3 · Cited by 60
Statistical group comparison of diffusion tensors via multivariate hypothesis testing
Whitcher, B. J., Wisco, J. J., Hadjikhani, N. K., & Tuch, D. S. (2007) · Magnetic Resonance in Medicine · doi:10.1002/mrm.21229 · Cited by 59
FLAIR diffusion-tensor MR tractography: comparison of fiber tracking with conventional imaging.
Chou, M.-C., Lin, Y., Huang, T., Wang, C. Y., Chung, H., Juan, C., & Chen, C. (2005) · PubMed Central · Cited by 54
Rashid, W., Hadjiprocopis, A., Griffin, C., Chard, D., Davies, G. R., Barker, G. J., Tofts, P. S., Thompson, A. J., & Miller, D. H. (2004) · Multiple Sclerosis Journal · doi:10.1191/1352458504ms985oa · Cited by 52
Yasmin, H., Aoki, S., Abe, O., Nakata, Y., Hayashi, N., Masutani, Y., Goto, M., & Ohtomo, K. (2009) · Neuroradiology · doi:10.1007/s00234-009-0580-1 · Cited by 52
Single‐shot diffusion MRI of human brain on a conventional clinical instrument
Liu, G., van Gelderen, P., Duyn, J. H., & MOONEN, C. T. W. (1996) · Magnetic Resonance in Medicine · doi:10.1002/mrm.1910350508 · Cited by 46
Seo, Y., Shinar, H., Morita, Y., & Navon, G. (1999) · Magnetic Resonance in Medicine · doi:10.1002/(sici)1522-2594(199909)42:3 · Cited by 19
Worsley (1996) · doi:10.1002/(sici)1097-0193(1996)4:1
Flagged first, then by citations
2 of the 71 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.
Research works printed but not linked: 8
- Le Bihan D, 1985, Imagerie de diffusion in vivo par résonance magnétique nucléaire, 1109
- AnderssonJL RichterM RichterW SkareS NunesRG RobsonMD BehrensTE.Effects of susceptibility distortions on tractography.Proceedings of the 12th Annual Meeting ISMRM Kyoto Japan 2004;87.
- LeeJ LazarM LeeJ HoldenJ Terasawa‐GrilleyE AlexanderAL.Correction of Bo EPI Distortions in Diffusion Tensor Imaging and White Matter Tractography.Proceedings of the 12th Annual Meeting ISMRM Kyoto Japan 2004;2172.
- Davis TL, 1993, Book of Abstracts: Twelfth Annual Meeting of the Society of Magnetic Resonance in Medicine, 289
- 10.1176/ajp.2007.164.3.467 · DOI
- Concha L, 2005, Diffusion tensor tractography of the limbic system. AJNR Am, J. Neuroradiol., 26, 2267
- PierpaoliC JonesDK.Removing CSF Contamination in Brain DT‐MRIs by Using a Two‐Compartment Tensor Model.In Proceedings of the 12th Annual Meeting ISMRM Kyoto 2004;1215.
- 10.1080/01621459.1967.10482916 · DOI · Paper page
Cited by
Sorted by citations
White matter integrity, fiber count, and other fallacies: The do's and don'ts of diffusion MRI
Jones, D. K., Knösche, T. R., & Turner, R. (2013) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2012.06.081 · Cited by 2,402
Self-citationThe Angular Gyrus: Multiple Functions and Multiple Subdivisions
Seghier, M. L. (2013) · The Neuroscientist · doi:10.1177/1073858412440596 · Cited by 1,585
Jeurissen, B., Tournier, J.-D., Dhollander, T., Connelly, A., & Sijbers, J. (2014) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2014.07.061 · Cited by 1,484
MRtrix: Diffusion tractography in crossing fiber regions
Tournier, J., Calamante, F., & Connelly, A. (2012) · International Journal of Imaging Systems and Technology · doi:10.1002/ima.22005 · Cited by 1,370
The hubs of the human connectome are generally implicated in the anatomy of brain disorders
Crossley, N. A., Mechelli, A., Scott, J., Carletti, F., Fox, P. T., McGuire, P., & Bullmore, E. T. (2014) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/awu132 · Cited by 1,166
Metadata
- Authors
- Jones, D. K., & Cercignani, M.
- Affiliations
- Cardiff University (GB)
- Fondazione Santa Lucia (IT)
- Corresponding author
- Jones, Derek K.
- Venue
- NMR in Biomedicine
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2010-08
- Volume
- 23
- Issue
- 7
- Pages
- 803-820
- ISSN
- 0952-3480 (ISSN-L)
- 1099-1492
- OpenAlex
- W2015391962
- Cited by
- 827
- References
- 71
- Citations by year
- 2026: 36 · 2025: 27 · 2024: 36 · 2023: 40 · 2022: 51 · 2021: 51 · 2020: 52 · 2019: 56 · 2018: 51 · 2017: 72 · 2016: 63 · 2015: 79 · 2014: 68 · 2013: 60 · 2012: 51
- FWCI
- 6.57
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- figshare.com
- Locations
- NMR in Biomedicine (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Figshare (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Radiology, Nuclear Medicine and Imaging › Advanced Neuroimaging Techniques and Applications
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Radiology, Nuclear Medicine and Imaging › Advanced MRI Techniques and Applications
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Functional Brain Connectivity Studies
- Keywords
- diffusion MRI, eddy current correction, susceptibility distortion correction, motion correction, diffusion tensor estimation, model fitting, region of interest placement, voxel-based analysis, histogram analysis, diffusion indices
- MeSH terms
- Algorithms, Brain, Cerebrospinal Fluid, Humans, Image Enhancement, Image Processing, Computer-Assisted, Artifacts, Diffusion Magnetic Resonance Imaging
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
