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Cited by 1,013Functional Brain Connectivity StudiesAdvanced Neuroimaging Techniques and ApplicationsFetal and Pediatric Neurological Disorders

Imaging structural and functional brain development in early childhood

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Gilmore, John H., Knickmeyer, Rebecca C., Gao, Wei·2018·Nature Reviews Neuroscience
DOI 10.1038/nrn.2018.1PMC PMC5987539
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Abstract

In humans, the period from term birth to ∼2 years of age is characterized by rapid and dynamic brain development and plays an important role in cognitive development and risk of disorders such as autism and schizophrenia. Recent imaging studies have begun to delineate the growth trajectories of brain structure and function in the first years after birth and their relationship to cognition and risk of neuropsychiatric disorders. This Review discusses the development of grey and white matter and structural and functional networks, as well as genetic and environmental influences on early-childhood brain development. We also discuss initial evidence regarding the usefulness of early imaging biomarkers for predicting cognitive outcomes and risk of neuropsychiatric disorders.

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  • Premisecitation

    Cortical and subcortical grey matter undergoes robust growth in the first year of life.

    “Cortical and subcortical grey matter also undergoes robust growth in the first year of life10, although cortical grey-matter networks seem to mature much later in childhood, perhaps driven by coordinated activity across the cortex from functional networks that arise much earlier in development.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [10] Gilmore, J. H. et al. Longitudinal development of cortical and subcortical gray matter from birth to 2 years. Cereb. Cortex 22, 2478–2485 (2012). source

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  • Premisecitation

    Some neurogenesis occurs after birth: neurons continue to arise and migrate from the subventricular zone of the anterior lateral ventricles to the olfactory bulb and ventromedial prefrontal cortex during the first 18 months of postnatal life.

    “one study showed that neurons continue to arise and migrate from the subventricular zone of the anterior lateral ventricles to the olfactory bulb and ventromedial prefrontal cortex in the first 18 months of postnatal life205.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [205] Sanai, N. et al. Corridors of migrating neurons in the human brain and their decline during infancy. Nature 478, 382–386 (2011). source

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  • Premisecitation

    Changing contrast challenges determination of cortical thickness, which depends on a clear boundary between cortical grey matter and underlying white matter.

    “This changing contrast also presents challenges for determining cortical thickness, which depends on a clear boundary between cortical grey matter and underlying white matter.28”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [28] Walhovd, K. B., Fjell, A. M., Giedd, J., Dale, A. M. & Brown, T. T. Through thick and thin: a need to reconcile contradictory results on trajectories in human cortical development. Cereb. Cortex 27, 1472–1481 (2017).

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  • Interpretationreasoning

    After age two, brain development mainly involves reorganization, fine-tuning, plasticity and remodelling of already established circuits and networks.

    “Brain development after age 2 years is characterized mainly by reorganization, ‘fine-tuning’, plasticity and remodelling of the major circuits and networks that are already established.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Premisecitation

    The basic structural and functional framework of the human brain is in place by the second year of life and perhaps earlier.

    “These studies, along with more recent postmortem histological and gene-expression studies7, 8 (Box 1), suggest that the basic structural and functional framework of the human brain is in place by the second year of life and perhaps even earlier.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [7] Petanjek, Z. et al. Extraordinary neoteny of synaptic spines in the human prefrontal cortex. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 108, 13281–13286 (2011). source

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    • cites [8] Pletikos, M. et al. Temporal specification and bilaterality of human neocortical topographic gene expression. Neuron 81, 321–332 (2014). source

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  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 11
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    Premisecitation

    In the human hippocampus, myelination begins at 20 weeks gestational age; by age two many regions reach adult levels, although some areas continue to myelinate into adulthood.

    “In the human hippocampus, myelination begins at 20 weeks gestational age, and by age 2 years, many regions have attained adult levels of myelination — although some areas, such as the hilus of the dentate, continue to myelinate throughout childhood into adulthood212–214.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [212] Abraham, H. et al. Myelination in the human hippocampal formation from midgestation to adulthood. Int. J. Dev. Neurosci. 28, 401–410 (2010). source

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    • cites [213] Arnold, S. E. & Trojanowski, J. Q. Human fetal hippocampal development: I. Cytoarchitecture, myeloarchitecture, and neuronal morphologic features. J. Comp. Neurol. 367, 274–292 (1996). source

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    • cites [214] Benes, F. M., Turtle, M., Khan, Y. & Farol, P. Myelination of a key relay zone in the hippocampal formation occurs in the human brain during childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 51, 477–484 (1994). source

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    Premisecitation

    The complexity of cortical neurons increases rapidly in the first years after birth, mirroring imaging findings of rapid cortical thickness growth and surface area expansion.

    “The complexity of cortical neurons increases rapidly in the first years after birth, mirroring imaging findings of rapid cortical thickness growth and surface area expansion.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [207] Conel, J. L. The Cortex of the Four-Year Child (Harvard Univ. Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1963). source

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    Premisecitation

    Myelination begins prenatally and is present in many regions at birth, especially primary sensory and motor pathways including the optic radiations and internal capsule.

    “Postmortem studies of white-matter myelination in the human brain find that myelination begins prenatally and is present in many regions at the time of birth, especially primary sensory and motor pathways, including the optic radiations and internal capsule210, 211.”
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    • cites [210] Hasegawa, M. et al. Development of myelination in the human fetal and infant cerebrum: a myelin basic protein immunohistochemical study. Brain Dev. 14, 1–6 (1992). source

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    • cites [211] Kinney, H. C., Brody, B. A., Kloman, A. S. & Gilles, F. H. Sequence of central nervous system myelination in human infancy II. Patterns of myelination in autopsied infants. J. Neuropathol. Exp. Neurol. 47, 217–234 (1988). source

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    Premisecitation

    In the corpus callosum, oligodendrocyte numbers increase until age five and are stable thereafter, with little turnover after age five.

    “In the corpus callosum, oligodendrocyte numbers increase until age 5 years and are stable thereafter; a study of nuclear bomb test-derived 14C suggest that there is little turnover of oligodendrocytes after age 5 years217.”
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    • cites [217] Yeung, M. S. et al. Dynamics of oligodendrocyte generation and myelination in the human brain. Cell 159, 766–774 (2014). source

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    Premisecitation

    The relative intensities of grey and white matter in T1- and T2-weighted imaging change significantly over the first year and are typically very similar between four and eight months, making grey-white distinction difficult.

    “the relative intensities of grey and white matter in T1- and T2-weighted imaging change significantly over the first year of life and are typically very similar between 4 to 8 months of age; this makes distinguishing grey and white matter difficult.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [28] Walhovd, K. B., Fjell, A. M., Giedd, J., Dale, A. M. & Brown, T. T. Through thick and thin: a need to reconcile contradictory results on trajectories in human cortical development. Cereb. Cortex 27, 1472–1481 (2017).

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    Premisecitation

    The number of oligodendrocytes in cerebral white matter increases rapidly and linearly after birth, from about seven billion at birth to 28 billion at age three, a rate of 600 million per month.

    “the number of oligodendrocytes in cerebral white matter increases rapidly and linearly after birth, from approximately 7 billion at birth to 28 billion at age 3 years — a rate of 600 million per month216.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [216] Sigaard, R. K., Kjaer, M. & Pakkenberg, B. Development of the cell population in the brain white matter of young children. Cereb. Cortex 26, 89–95 (2016). source

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    Premisecitation

    The period from term birth to about two years of age is important for establishing lifelong cognitive abilities and behaviours and for risk of neuropsychiatric disorders such as autism and schizophrenia.

    “Early childhood — especially the period between term birth and about ~2 years of age — is increasingly recognized as being very important for establishing cognitive abilities and behaviours that last a lifetime1, as well as for risk for neuropsychiatric disorders such as autism and schizophrenia2.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [1] Nelson, C. A. et al. Cognitive recovery in socially deprived young children: the Bucharest Early Intervention Project. Science 318, 1937–1940 (2007). source

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    • cites [2] National Advisory Mental Health Council's Workgroup.Transformative Neurodevelopmental Research in Mental Illness (US National Institute of Mental Health, 2008).

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    Premisecitation

    After birth, myelination generally proceeds in sensory before motor regions, projection before association areas, and posterior before anterior regions.

    “Postnatally, myelination follows a general pattern of sensory before motor regions, projection areas before associative areas, and posterior before anterior regions211.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [211] Kinney, H. C., Brody, B. A., Kloman, A. S. & Gilles, F. H. Sequence of central nervous system myelination in human infancy II. Patterns of myelination in autopsied infants. J. Neuropathol. Exp. Neurol. 47, 217–234 (1988). source

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    Premisecitation

    Synaptic spine density in prefrontal cortex peaks by two to five years and falls in adolescence.

    “Synaptic spine density in prefrontal cortex also peaks by 2–5 years and falls in adolescence7.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [7] Petanjek, Z. et al. Extraordinary neoteny of synaptic spines in the human prefrontal cortex. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 108, 13281–13286 (2011). source

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    Premisecitation

    At birth, layer V neurons have more complex basal dendritic trees than layer IIIC neurons; layer V neurons reach maximum complexity at 16 to 30 months, before layer IIIC neurons.

    “at birth layer V neurons have more complex basal dendritic trees which integrate synaptic inputs compared to layer IIIC neurons; layer V neurons reach maximum complexity at 16 to 30 months after birth, before layer IIIC209”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [209] Petanjek, Z., Judas, M., Kostovic, I. & Uylings, H. B. Lifespan alterations of basal dendritic trees of pyramidal neurons in the human prefrontal cortex: a layer-specific pattern. Cereb. Cortex 18, 915–929 (2008). source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Cortical grey-matter networks mature much later in childhood, perhaps driven by coordinated activity from functional networks that arise earlier.

    “Cortical and subcortical grey matter also undergoes robust growth in the first year of life10, although cortical grey-matter networks seem to mature much later in childhood, perhaps driven by coordinated activity across the cortex from functional networks that arise much earlier in development.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In the neocortex, mature myelination patterns are attained only in adulthood, reflecting protracted maturation in humans compared with non-human primates.

    “In the neocortex, mature myelination patterns are attained only in adulthood, reflecting a protracted maturation of this brain region in humans compared with that in non-human primates215.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [215] Miller, D. J. et al. Prolonged myelination in human neocortical evolution. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 109, 16480–16485 (2012). source

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    Interpretationcitation

    White-matter tracts and networks are largely in place at birth, while resting-state functional networks develop rapidly after birth along with myelination and maturation of existing white-matter connections.

    “They suggest a model in which white-matter tracts and networks are largely in place at birth, and resting-state functional networks develop rapidly after birth, along with rapid myelination and maturation of existing white-matter connections.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [9] Geng, X. et al. Structural and maturational covariance in early childhood brain development. Cereb. Cortex 27, 1795–1807 (2017).

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    Premisecitation

    Synapse numbers increase rapidly after birth and decrease in adolescence, peaking in auditory and visual sensory areas before the prefrontal cortex.

    “Synapse numbers increase rapidly after birth and decrease in adolescence, with synapse numbers peaking in the auditory and visual sensory areas before those in the prefrontal cortex208”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [208] Huttenlocher, P. R. & Dabholkar, A. S. Regional differences in synaptogenesis in human cerebral cortex. J. Comp. Neurol. 387, 167–178 (1997). source

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    Premisecitation

    With postnatal development, axial and radial diffusivity decrease while fractional anisotropy increases, thought to reflect increasing organization of already established white matter tracts, including myelination.

    “With postnatal development, measures of white-matter microstructure and maturation, including axial diffusivity [G] (AD) and radial diffusivity [G] (RD), decrease, whereas fractional anisotropy [G] (FA) increases, thought to reflect the increasing organization of the already established white matter tracts, including myelination5,32.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [5] Dubois, J. et al. The early development of brain white matter: a review of imaging studies in fetuses, newborns and infants. Neuroscience 276, 48–71 (2014). This is a comprehensive review of the use of imaging to study white matter in early brain development. source

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    • cites [32] Geng, X. et al. Quantitative tract-based white matter development from birth to age 2 years. Neuroimage 61, 542–557 (2012). source

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    Premisecitation

    Lateral ventricle volume increases by over 100% in the first year and then decreases by 7-24% in the second year.

    “Lateral ventricle volume increases by over 100% in year 1, but subsequently decreases by 7–24% in the second year of life3, 10, 19.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [3] Knickmeyer, R. C. et al. A structural MRI study of human brain development from birth to 2 years. J. Neurosci. 28, 12176–12182 (2008). This is a comprehensive study of structural brain development in the first 2 years of life demonstrating the rapid growth of cortical grey matter in the first year of life. source

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    • cites [10] Gilmore, J. H. et al. Longitudinal development of cortical and subcortical gray matter from birth to 2 years. Cereb. Cortex 22, 2478–2485 (2012). source

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    • cites [19] Bompard, L. et al. Multivariate longitudinal shape analysis of human lateral ventricles during the first twenty-four months of life. PLoS ONE 9, e108306 (2014). source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Major white matter tracts such as the corpus callosum, superior and inferior longitudinal fasciculus, arcuate and cingulum are present at birth, indicating that most brain wiring is established prenatally.

    “Diffusion imaging studies find that major white matter tracts such as the corpus callosum, superior and inferior longitudinal fasciculus, arcuate, and cingulum are present at the time of birth, indicating that most of the ‘wiring’ of the brain is established during prenatal brain development31 (Fig. 1).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [31] Qiu, A., Mori, S. & Miller, M. I. Diffusion tensor imaging for understanding brain development in early life. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 66, 853–876 (2015). source

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    Premisecitation

    mcDESPOT determines the myelin water fraction and assesses white-matter myelination more directly than traditional diffusion-weighted imaging, but depends on acquisition protocol and modelling assumptions.

    “This method assesses white-matter myelination more directly than does traditional diffusion-weighted imaging, but is dependent on acquisition protocol and modelling assumptions5,233,5, 234.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [5] Dubois, J. et al. The early development of brain white matter: a review of imaging studies in fetuses, newborns and infants. Neuroscience 276, 48–71 (2014). This is a comprehensive review of the use of imaging to study white matter in early brain development. source

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    • cites [233] Lankford, C. L. & Does, M. D. On the inherent precision of mcDESPOT. Magn. Reson. Med. 69, 127–136 (2013). source

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    • cites [234] Teixeira, R. P., Malik, S. J. & Hajnal, J. V. Joint system relaxometry (JSR) and Cramer-Rao lower bound optimization of sequence parameters: a framework for enhanced precision of DESPOT T1 and T2 estimation. Magn. Reson. Med. 79, 234–245 (2018). source

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    Premisecitation

    Growth rates of subcortical grey-matter structures are similar to cortical grey-matter growth rates, with the amygdala, thalamus, caudate, putamen and pallidum growing about 105% in the first year and roughly 15% in the second.

    “The growth rates of subcortical grey-matter structures are similar to cortical grey-matter growth rates, with the amygdala, thalamus, caudate, putamen, and pallidum growing about 105% in the first year and roughly 15% in the second.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [10] Gilmore, J. H. et al. Longitudinal development of cortical and subcortical gray matter from birth to 2 years. Cereb. Cortex 22, 2478–2485 (2012). source

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    Premisecitation

    Maturation of white-matter regions and tracts measured by DTI is similar to that of grey matter regions, with rapid change in the first year and more gradual increase thereafter.

    “the maturation of white-matter regions and tracts has been revealed by quantitative diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) studies to be similar to that observed for grey matter regions, with rapid rates of change in the first year of life, and a more gradual increase thereafter (Box 3; reviewed elsewhere5).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [5] Dubois, J. et al. The early development of brain white matter: a review of imaging studies in fetuses, newborns and infants. Neuroscience 276, 48–71 (2014). This is a comprehensive review of the use of imaging to study white matter in early brain development. source

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    Premisenone given

    The patterns of white-matter maturation described by diffusion tensor imaging and myelin water fraction studies are consistent with each other and with previous postmortem studies of myelination.

    “The patterns of white-matter maturation described by diffusion tensor imaging and myelin water fraction studies are consistent with one another and with previous postmortem studies of myelination (Box 1).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

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    Premisecitation

    The white-matter connectome at birth is highly organized and includes hub regions and connections similar to those observed in adults.

    “Overall, the white-matter connectome at birth is highly organized and includes hub regions and connections that are similar to those observed in adults48,49.”
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    • cites [48] Yap, P. T. et al. Development trends of white matter connectivity in the first years of life. PLoS ONE 6, e24678 (2011). source

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    • cites [49] van den Heuvel, M. P. et al. The neonatal connectome during preterm brain development. Cereb. Cortex 25, 3000–3013 (2015). source

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    Premisenone given

    White-matter volume growth is slower and more protracted than grey matter volume growth.

    “As noted above, white-matter volume growth is more slow and protracted compared to grey matter volume (Figs 1, 2).”
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    Premisecitation

    Cortical surface area expands by 76% from birth in the first year and another 22% in the second year; by age two the mean surface area is about 69% of adult values.

    “Cortical surface area expands by 76% from birth in year 1 and another 22% in year 2; by age 2 years, the mean surface area is about 69% of adult values4,23.”
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    • cites [4] Lyall, A. E. et al. Dynamic development of regional cortical thickness and surface area in early childhood. Cereb. Cortex 25, 2204–2212 (2015). source

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    • cites [23] Li, G. et al. Mapping region-specific longitudinal cortical surface expansion from birth to 2 years of age. Cereb. Cortex 23, 2724–2733 (2013). source

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    Premisecitation

    Regional heterogeneity of cortical thickness seen in adults is established at birth and persists through age two into adulthood.

    “Regional heterogeneity of cortical thickness observed in adults is well established at birth and persists through age 2 years into adulthood4,26.”
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    • cites [4] Lyall, A. E. et al. Dynamic development of regional cortical thickness and surface area in early childhood. Cereb. Cortex 25, 2204–2212 (2015). source

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    • cites [26] Li, G., Lin, W., Gilmore, J. H. & Shen, D. Spatial patterns, longitudinal development, and hemispheric asymmetries of cortical thickness in infants from birth to 2 years of age. J. Neurosci. 35, 9150–9162 (2015). source

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    Premisecitation

    Cortical thickness probably peaks at one to two years and declines thereafter, while surface area continues to expand well into late childhood or early adolescence.

    “Imaging studies of infants and older childen21, 20, 22 have revealed that cortical thickness probably peaks in the range of 1–2 years and declines thereafter, whereas surface area continues to expand well into late childhood or early adolescence.”
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    • cites [21] Shaw, P. et al. Neurodevelopmental trajectories of the human cerebral cortex. J. Neurosci. 28, 3586–3594 (2008). source

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    • cites [20] Raznahan, A. et al. How does your cortex grow? J. Neurosci. 31, 7174–7177 (2011). source

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    • cites [22] Remer, J. et al. Quantifying cortical development in typically developing toddlers and young children, 1–6 years of age. Neuroimage 153, 246–261 (2017). source

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    Premisecitation

    Brain volume is about 35% of adult volume two to three weeks after birth, doubles from term size in the first year, and increases an additional 15% in the second year to about 80% of adult size.

    “Brain volume is about 35% of adult volume 2–3 weeks after birth after birth13, doubles from term size in the first year of life and increases an additional 15% in the second to about 80% of adult size3.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [13] Gilmore, J. H. et al. Regional gray matter growth, sexual dimorphism, and cerebral asymmetry in the neonatal brain. J. Neurosci. 27, 1255–1260 (2007). source

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    • cites [3] Knickmeyer, R. C. et al. A structural MRI study of human brain development from birth to 2 years. J. Neurosci. 28, 12176–12182 (2008). This is a comprehensive study of structural brain development in the first 2 years of life demonstrating the rapid growth of cortical grey matter in the first year of life. source

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    Premisecitation

    Average cortical thickness increases by 31% in the first year and an additional 4.3% in the second year; by age two mean cortical thickness is about 97% of adult values.

    “Average cortical thickness increases by an average of 31% in year 1 and an additional 4.3% in the second year; by age 2, the mean cortical thickness is about 97% of the values observed in adults4.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [4] Lyall, A. E. et al. Dynamic development of regional cortical thickness and surface area in early childhood. Cereb. Cortex 25, 2204–2212 (2015). source

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    Premisecitation

    Motion tends to reduce estimates of grey-matter volume and cortical thickness and can influence observed trajectories of cortical thickness maturation.

    “Motion tends to reduce estimates of grey-matter volume and cortical thickness221 and can influence observed trajectories of cortical thickness maturation as well27.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [221] Reuter, M. et al. Head motion during MRI acquisition reduces gray matter volume and thickness estimates. Neuroimage 107, 107–115 (2015). source

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    • cites [27] Ducharme, S. et al. Trajectories of cortical thickness maturation in normal brain development — the importance of quality control procedures. Neuroimage 125, 267–279 (2016). source

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    Premisenone given

    Surface area expansion is regionally heterogeneous: lateral frontal, lateral parietal and occipital cortices grow relatively rapidly, while orbital frontal, insula and occipital regions grow more slowly.

    “Surface area expansion is also regionally heterogeneous across the brain: the lateral frontal, lateral parietal and occipital cortices grow relatively rapidly, whereas regions in the orbital frontal, insula and occipital cortices tend to grow more slowly (Fig. 1).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

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    Premisecitation

    From birth to age one, cortical grey-matter volume increases by 108-149% while white matter increases by about 11%; from age one to two, grey matter increases by 14-19% while white matter increases by 19%.

    “From birth to age 1, cortical grey-matter volume increases 108–149%, whereas white matter increases by about 11%; from age 1 to age 2 years, grey matter increases 14–19%, whereas white matter increases by 19%3.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [3] Knickmeyer, R. C. et al. A structural MRI study of human brain development from birth to 2 years. J. Neurosci. 28, 12176–12182 (2008). This is a comprehensive study of structural brain development in the first 2 years of life demonstrating the rapid growth of cortical grey matter in the first year of life. source

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    Premisecitation

    Network maturation in the first two years after birth generally consists of increased network efficiency and integration, decreased segregation, and some changes in modularity, with most major hubs and modules in place by age two.

    “Network maturation in the first 2 years after birth generally consists of increased network efficiency and network integration [G], decreased network segregation [G], and some changes in the modularity48, 51, with most major hubs and modules in place by age 2 years52.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [48] Yap, P. T. et al. Development trends of white matter connectivity in the first years of life. PLoS ONE 6, e24678 (2011). source

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    • cites [51] Huang, H. et al. Development of human brain structural networks through infancy and childhood. Cereb. Cortex 25, 1389–1404 (2015). source

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    • cites [52] Hagmann, P. et al. White matter maturation reshapes structural connectivity in the late developing human brain. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 107, 19067–19072 (2010). source

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    Premisecitation

    Imaging measures are indirect measures of brain structure and function and are subject to confounds such as hydration, blood lipid levels and cortisol levels.

    “It is also important to recognize that imaging measures are indirect measures of brain structure and function and are subject to the effect of many potential confounds, such as hydration, blood lipid levels and cortisol levels224.”
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    • cites [224] Weinberger, D. R. & Radulescu, E. Finding the elusive psychiatric “lesion” with 21st-century neuroanatomy: a note of caution. Am. J. Psychiatry 173, 27–33 (2016). source

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    Premisecitation

    Using multicomponent relaxometry, myelination in the first year begins in the cerebellum, pons and internal capsule and proceeds back-to-front: splenium and optic radiations at three to four months, occipital and parietal lobes at four to six months, and frontal and temporal lobes at six to eight months.

    “myelination in the first year of life was shown to begin in the cerebellum, pons and internal capsule, and to proceed in a ‘back-to-front’ pattern, from the splenium of the corpus callosum and optic radiations (3–4 months), to the occipital and parietal lobes (4–6 months), and anteriorly to the frontal and temporal lobes ( 6–8 months)33.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [33] Deoni, S. C. et al. Mapping infant brain myelination with magnetic resonance imaging. J. Neurosci. 31, 784–791 (2011). This paper presents the initial imaging study of myelin development in the human infant using the myelin water fraction approach, a more direct assessment of myelin than standard diffusion-weighted imaging. source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    After age two, total grey-matter volume shows minimal absolute increases through childhood and decreases in adolescence, while white-matter volumes steadily increase through early adulthood, peaking around age 30.

    “After age 2, total grey-matter volume shows minimal absolute increases through childhood and decreases in adolescence, whereas white-matter volumes steadily increase through early adulthood, peaking around age 30.17,18.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [17] Groeschel, S., Vollmer, B., King, M. D. & Connelly, A. Developmental changes in cerebral grey and white matter volume from infancy to adulthood. Int. J. Dev. Neurosci. 28, 481–489 (2010). source

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    • cites [18] Mills, K. L. et al. Structural brain development between childhood and adulthood: convergence across four longitudinal samples. Neuroimage 141, 273–281 (2016). source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Diffusion values change more gradually through later childhood and adolescence, with axial and radial diffusivity decreasing and fractional anisotropy increasing.

    “Diffusion values change much more gradually through later childhood and adolescence, with AD and RD decreasing and FA increasing. 34,35”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [34] Faria, A. V. et al. Atlas-based analysis of neurodevelopment from infancy to adulthood using diffusion tensor imaging and applications for automated abnormality detection. Neuroimage 52, 415–428 (2010). source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [35] Krogsrud, S. K. et al. Changes in white matter microstructure in the developing brain — a longitudinal diffusion tensor imaging study of children from 4 to 11 years of age. Neuroimage 124, 473–486 (2016). source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    Regions of faster cortical thickness growth after birth include speech and language regions, the insula and cingulate cortex, and some higher association areas, while primary and secondary sensory cortices grow more slowly.

    “Regions of faster growth of cortical thickness after birth include speech and language regions [Heschel’s gyrus, Rolandic operulum], the insula and cingulate cortex as well as some higher association areas. The primary and secondary sensory cortices tend to grow more slowly.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

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    Premisecitation

    Most studies find cortical thickness decreases linearly after age four to five years, although some studies suggest an increase from age six to ten and thinning after ten to twelve.

    “Whereas some studies have suggested that cortical thickness increases from age 6 to 10 years and begins to thin after 10–12 years21,20, most studies find that cortical thickness decreases linearly after age 4–5 years25,27,28.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [21] Shaw, P. et al. Neurodevelopmental trajectories of the human cerebral cortex. J. Neurosci. 28, 3586–3594 (2008). source

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    • cites [20] Raznahan, A. et al. How does your cortex grow? J. Neurosci. 31, 7174–7177 (2011). source

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    • cites [25] Brown, T. T. et al. Neuroanatomical assessment of biological maturity. Curr. Biol. 22, 1693–1698 (2012). source

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    Premisecitation

    Fractional anisotropy increases by 9-44% in the first year, with most tracts increasing by more than 25%; in the second year it increases by 5-9% over age-one levels.

    “For example, FA increases 9–44% in the first year, with most tracts increasing by more than 25%; in the second year, FA increases 5–9% over levels at age 1 year.”
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    Premisecitation

    Primary sensorimotor structural covariance networks are well developed by birth, while higher-order association networks mature and become increasingly distributed, involving more regions from age five to eighteen.

    “Primary sensorimotor SCNs are well developed by birth, and higher-order association SCNs mature and became increasingly distributed, involving more regions from age 5 to 18 years. 60.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [60] Zielinski, B. A., Gennatas, E. D., Zhou, J. & Seeley, W. W. Network-level structural covariance in the developing brain. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 107, 18191–18196 (2010). source

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    Premisecitation

    Topographic thalamic connections with each primary cortical network have been documented in premature babies at term age and in full-term newborns, and undergo postnatal refinement and expansion.

    “topographic thalamic connections with each of the primary cortical networks has been documented in premature babies at term age96 and in full-term newborns97, and undergo postnatal refinement and expansion97.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [96] Alcauter, S. et al. Development of thalamocortical connectivity during infancy and its cognitive correlations. J. Neurosci. 34, 9067–9075 (2014). source

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    • cites [97] Ball, G. et al. Thalamocortical connectivity predicts cognition in children born preterm. Cereb. Cortex 25, 4310–4318 (2015). source

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    Premisecitation

    The adult language network is lateralized and includes the inferior frontal gyrus and superior temporal gyrus; these regions begin to show asymmetry in functional connectivity with the contralateral homotopic region at about age two.

    “The language network, in adults is lateralized and encompasses the inferior frontal gyrus (IFG) and the superior temporal gyrus (STG); these regions begin to exhibit asymmetry in functional connectivity with the homotopic region on the contralateral hemisphere at about age 2 years 102.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [102] Calhoun, V. D., Adali, T., Pearlson, G. D. & Pekar, J. J. A method for making group inferences from functional MRI data using independent component analysis. Hum. Brain Mapp. 14, 140–151 (2001). source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Progressive maturation of primary functional networks has been shown in human fetuses and in premature infants before term age.

    “Progressive maturation of these primary networks has been shown in human fetuses94 and in premature infants before term age88, 89,89”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [94] Jones, E. G. The Thalamus (Springer Science & Business Media, 2012).

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [88] Smyser, C. D. et al. Longitudinal analysis of neural network development in preterm infants. Cereb. Cortex 20, 2852–2862 (2010). source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [89] Gao, W., Alcauter, S., Smith, J. K., Gilmore, J. H. & Lin, W. Development of human brain cortical network architecture during infancy. Brain Struct. Funct. 220, 1173–1186 (2015). source

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    Premisecitation

    When defined by seed-based or independent component analysis, the default-mode, dorsal attention and salience networks establish distributed network-like topologies by age two, earlier than executive control networks, consistent with protracted development of executive functions.

    “the default-mode network99, 104, the dorsal attention network [G] 105, 106 and the salience network [G] 107 establish distributed network-like topologies by 2 years of age90, 91 earlier than the executive control networks 91, 97, 107, consistent with the protracted development of executive functions108.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [90] Gao, W. et al. Functional network development during the first year: relative sequence and socioeconomic correlations. Cereb. Cortex 25, 2919–2928 (2015). This paper delineates the developmental sequence of nine major resting-state networks during the first year of life in a cohort of full-term infants. source

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    • cites [91] Doria, V. et al. Emergence of resting state networks in the preterm human brain. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 107, 20015–20020 (2010). source

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    • cites [105] Seeley, W. W. et al. Dissociable intrinsic connectivity networks for salience processing and executive control. J. Neurosci. 27, 2349–2356 (2007). source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In the first two years of life, structural covariance networks and maturational networks are not clearly related, suggesting that fine tuning of cortical structural covariance networks, especially high-order ones, occurs later in childhood.

    “By contrast, in the first 2 years of life, SCNs and maturational networks [G] are not clearly related, suggesting that the fine tuning of cortical SCNs, especially high-order SCNs, occurs later in childhood61.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [61] Khundrakpam, B. S. et al. Developmental changes in organization of structural brain networks. Cereb. Cortex 23, 2072–2085 (2013). source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Both structural and functional thalamocortical connectivity predict later general cognition and working memory.

    “both structural and functional thalamocortical connectivity have been shown to predict later general cognition and working memory 97, 98.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [97] Ball, G. et al. Thalamocortical connectivity predicts cognition in children born preterm. Cereb. Cortex 25, 4310–4318 (2015). source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [98] Raichle, M. E. et al. A default mode of brain function. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 98, 676–682 (2001). source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Infants develop the functional hierarchy in a region- and step-dependent manner, with many top-hierarchy regions present at 1 year of age.

    “Infants gradually develop this hierarchy in a region- and step-dependent manner, displaying many of the same regions in the top hierarchy (i.e., lateral frontoparietal, limbic and basal ganglia regions) at 1 year of age111”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [111] Mesulam, M. M. From sensation to cognition. Brain 121, 1013–1052 (1998). source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The default-mode network shows the earliest synchronization of its constituent regions and achieves an adult-like core structure by around six months, consistent with the emergence of self-awareness thought to depend on this network at that age.

    “the default-mode network99, 100 shows the earliest synchronization of its constituent regions and achieves an adult-like core structure [G] by around 6 months of age91, consistent with the emergence of self-awareness, which is thought to depend on the default-mode network, at this age101.”
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    • cites [91] Doria, V. et al. Emergence of resting state networks in the preterm human brain. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 107, 20015–20020 (2010). source

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    • cites [101] Emerson, R. W., Gao, W. & Lin, W. Longitudinal study of the emerging functional connectivity asymmetry of primary language regions during infancy. J. Neurosci. 36, 10883–10892 (2016). source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Primary functional networks, including sensorimotor, visual and auditory networks, develop first and show adult-like topologies in premature babies at term age and in full-term newborns.

    “Specifically, primary functional networks, including the sensorimotor, visual, and auditory networks, develop first and show adult-like topologies in premature babies at term age86, 89, 92, 93 and in full-term newborns6, 90, 91.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [86] Lin, W. et al. Functional connectivity MR imaging reveals cortical functional connectivity in the developing brain. AJNR Am. J. Neuroradiol. 29, 1883–1889 (2008). source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [89] Gao, W., Alcauter, S., Smith, J. K., Gilmore, J. H. & Lin, W. Development of human brain cortical network architecture during infancy. Brain Struct. Funct. 220, 1173–1186 (2015). source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [92] Fransson, P., Aden, U., Blennow, M. & Lagercrantz, H. The functional architecture of the infant brain as revealed by resting-state fMRI. Cereb. Cortex 21, 145–154 (2011). source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Sensory networks exchange information through two-step inter-regional functional connectivity to the default-mode network and lateral frontoparietal, limbic and basal ganglia regions in subsequent steps, mimicking the hierarchy proposed by predictive encoding.

    “sensory networks have been demonstrated to exchange information through two-step inter-regional functional connectivity to the default-mode network and lateral frontoparietal, limbic and basal ganglia regions in subsequent steps111, 115, mimicking the hierarchy proposed by the theory of predictive encoding [G]116, 117.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 4 sources checked
    • cites [111] Mesulam, M. M. From sensation to cognition. Brain 121, 1013–1052 (1998). source

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    • cites [115] Gao, W. et al. Temporal and spatial evolution of brain network topology during the first two years of life. PLoS ONE 6, e25278 (2011). source

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    • cites [116] Supekar, K., Musen, M. & Menon, V. Development of large-scale functional brain networks in children. PLoS Biol. 7, e1000157 (2009). source

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    • cites [117] Feldman, D. E. & Brecht, M. Map plasticity in somatosensory cortex. Science 310, 810–815 (2005). source

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    Premisecitation

    In children aged 5-18 years, 60% of the genetic variability of cortical thickness is shared across different cortical regions, with shared genetic variance in fronto-parietal and occipital regions.

    “One twin study in children aged 5–18 years 154 found that 60% of the genetic variability of cortical thickness was shared across different regions of the cortex, with SCNs of shared genetic variance in fronto-parietal and occipital regions.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [154] Silbereis, J. C., Pochareddy, S., Zhu, Y., Li, M. & Sestan, N. The cellular and molecular landscapes of the developing human central nervous system. Neuron 89, 248–268 (2016). source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Some studies show more focal sex differences in the thalamus, corpus callosum, cingulum, and superior cerebellar peduncles, and some show regions of increased FA in adult females, including the corpus callosum and fronto-occipital fasciculus.

    “some studies have shown more focal differences in the thalamus, corpus callosum, cingulum, and superior cerebellar peduncles 136, 137, and some studies also show regions of increased FA in adult females compared with males, including the corpus callosum and fronto-occipital fasciculus137, 138.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [136] Kogler, L. et al. Sex differences in the functional connectivity of the amygdalae in association with cortisol. Neuroimage 134, 410–423 (2016). source

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    • cites [137] Engman, J., Linnman, C., Van Dijk, K. R. & Milad, M. R. Amygdala subnuclei resting-state functional connectivity sex and estrogen differences. Psychoneuroendocrinology 63, 34–42 (2016). source

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    • cites [138] Alarcon, G., Cservenka, A., Rudolph, M. D., Fair, D. A. & Nagel, B. J. Developmental sex differences in resting state functional connectivity of amygdala sub-regions. Neuroimage 115, 235–244 (2015). source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Sexual differentiation of the brain during prenatal, perinatal and early postnatal periods probably reflects a dynamic interplay of biological and experiential mechanisms.

    “Sexual differentiation of the brain during the prenatal, perinatal and early postnatal period probably reflects a dynamic interplay of many mechanisms”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

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    Premisecitation

    The heritability of tract-based FA is relatively low in neonates and in 9- and 12-year-olds.

    “the heritability of tract-based FA in neonates149, 150 and in 9- and 12-year-olds151 is relatively low”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [149] Bohlken, M. M. et al. Genes contributing to subcortical volumes and intellectual ability implicate the thalamus. Hum. Brain Mapp. 35, 2632–2642 (2014). source

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    • cites [150] Glahn, D. C. et al. Genetic control over the resting brain. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 107, 1223–1228 (2010). source

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    • cites [151] Schmitt, J. E. et al. The dynamic role of genetics on cortical patterning during childhood and adolescence. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 111, 6774–6779 (2014). source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    White-matter microstructure as represented by FA is generally highly heritable in adults, with variability across tracts.

    “white-matter microstructure, as represented by FA, is generally highly heritable in adults, with variability across different white-matter tracts147, 148.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [147] Lee, S. J. et al. Quantitative tract-based white matter heritability in twin neonates. Neuroimage 111, 123–135 (2015). source

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    • cites [148] Brouwer, R. M. et al. White matter development in early puberty: a longitudinal volumetric and diffusion tensor imaging twin study. PLoS ONE 7, e32316 (2012). source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Developmental patterns of resting-state functional connectivity are remarkably similar between males and females, except that interconnectivity between the two lateralized fronto-parietal networks increases at a greater rate in males.

    “Developmental patterns of resting-state functional connectivity are remarkably similar between males and females, with the exception that interconnectivity between the two lateralized fronto-parietal networks increases at a greater rate in males90.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [90] Gao, W. et al. Functional network development during the first year: relative sequence and socioeconomic correlations. Cereb. Cortex 25, 2919–2928 (2015). This paper delineates the developmental sequence of nine major resting-state networks during the first year of life in a cohort of full-term infants. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    DTI studies find minimal sex differences in neonates and in the maturation pattern of major white-matter fibre bundles over time.

    “DTI studies find minimal sex differences in neonates128, 129 and in the maturation pattern of major white-matter fibre bundles with time32.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [128] Inano, S., Takao, H., Hayashi, N., Abe, O. & Ohtomo, K. Effects of age and gender on white matter integrity. AJNR Am. J. Neuroradiol 32, 2103–2109 (2011). source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [129] van Hemmen, J. et al. Sex differences in white matter microstructure in the human brain predominantly reflect differences in sex hormone exposure. Cereb. Cortex 27, 2994–3001 (2017).

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [32] Geng, X. et al. Quantitative tract-based white matter development from birth to age 2 years. Neuroimage 61, 542–557 (2012). source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    The postnatal sex difference in brain volume is probably driven by differences in surface area expansion, because global and regional cortical thickness trajectories are highly similar in males and females.

    “These differences are probably driven by differences in surface area expansion, as the maturational trajectories of global and regional cortical thickness are highly similar in males and females4, 20, 27.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [4] Lyall, A. E. et al. Dynamic development of regional cortical thickness and surface area in early childhood. Cereb. Cortex 25, 2204–2212 (2015). source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [20] Raznahan, A. et al. How does your cortex grow? J. Neurosci. 31, 7174–7177 (2011). source

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    • cites [27] Ducharme, S. et al. Trajectories of cortical thickness maturation in normal brain development — the importance of quality control procedures. Neuroimage 125, 267–279 (2016). source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The path length and clustering coefficients of adult white-matter networks have heritabilities of 57% and 68%, respectively.

    “the path length [G] and clustering coefficients [G] of adult white-matter networks have heritabilities of 57% and 68% respectively152”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [152] van den Heuvel, M. P. et al. Genetic control of functional brain network efficiency in children. Eur. Neuropsychopharmacol. 23, 19–23 (2013). source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Cortical thickness and surface area have considerable genetic influences that vary by cortical region but share little genetic variance, indicating regulation by different sets of genetic influences.

    “Cortical thickness and surface area also have considerable genetic influences that vary by cortical region, but interestingly share little shared genetic variance between them, indicating that these two aspects of cortical volume are regulated by different sets of genetic influences 144, 145.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [144] Kochunov, P. et al. Heritability of fractional anisotropy in human white matter: a comparison of Human Connectome Project and ENIGMA-DTI data. Neuroimage 111, 300–311 (2015). source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [145] Vuoksimaa, E. et al. Heritability of white matter microstructure in late middle age: a twin study of tract-based fractional anisotropy and absolute diffusivity indices. Hum. Brain Mapp. 38, 2026–2036 (2017). source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Structural networks of white matter and resting-state functional networks each have considerable genetic components in adults.

    “structural networks of white matter and resting-state functional networks each have considerable genetic components43.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [43] Richmond, S., Johnson, K. A., Seal, M. L., Allen, N. B. & Whittle, S. Development of brain networks and relevance of environmental and genetic factors: a systematic review. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 71, 215–239 (2016). source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    These adult sex differences may emerge in adolescence, when FA increases more rapidly in males than females, driven by a reduction in RD.

    “These sex differences may therefore emerge in adolescence, as FA increases more rapidly in males than females across this time period, driven by reduction in RD.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Adult studies suggest males have higher FA, higher AD, and lower RD in widespread white-matter regions.

    “studies in adults suggest that males have higher FA, higher AD, and lower RD in widespread white-matter regions131–135.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 5 sources checked
    • cites [131] den Braber, A. et al. Sex differences in gray and white matter structure in age-matched unrelated males and females and opposite-sex siblings. Int. J. Psychol. Res. 6, 7–21 (2013). source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [132] Takao, H., Hayashi, N. & Ohtomo, K. Sex dimorphism in the white matter: fractional anisotropy and brain size. J. Magn. Reson. Imag. 39, 917–923 (2014). source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [133] Menzler, K. et al. Men and women are different: diffusion tensor imaging reveals sexual dimorphism in the microstructure of the thalamus, corpus callosum and cingulum. Neuroimage 54, 2557–2562 (2011). source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [134] Kanaan, R. A. et al. Gender influence on white matter microstructure: a tract-based spatial statistics analysis. PLoS ONE 9, e91109 (2014). source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [135] Chou, K. H., Cheng, Y., Chen, I. Y., Lin, C. P. & Chu, W. C. Sex-linked white matter microstructure of the social and analytic brain. Neuroimage 54, 725–733 (2011). source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Regions of significant heritability of functional connectivity are evident at birth and expand by age 2 years.

    “Regions of significant heritability of functional connectivity are evident at birth and expand by age 2 years109”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [109] Andersen, R. A. Multimodal integration for the representation of space in the posterior parietal cortex. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol Sci. 352, 1421–1428 (1997). source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In older children and adolescents, lower family income and lower parental education are associated with reduced volumes of cortical grey matter, hippocampus, and amygdala, as well as reduced cortical surface area and cortical thickness.

    “In older children and adolescents, lower family income and lower parental education have been associated with reduced volumes of cortical grey matter, the hippocampus, and the amygdala168 as well as reduced cortical surface area and cortical thickness169, 170.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [168] Luby, J. et al. The effects of poverty on childhood brain development: the mediating effect of caregiving and stressful life events. JAMA Pediatr. 167, 1135–1142 (2013). source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [169] Mackey, A. P. et al. Neuroanatomical correlates of the income-achievement gap. Psychol. Sci. 26, 925–933 (2015). source

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    • cites [170] Noble, K. G. et al. Family income, parental education and brain structure in children and adolescents. Nat. Neurosci. 18, 773–778 (2015). source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Prenatal cocaine exposure is associated with aberrant functional connectivity between the amygdala and medial prefrontal cortex and between the thalamus and frontal cortex.

    “prenatal cocaine exposure is associated with aberrant functional connectivity between the amygdala and the medial prefrontal cortex183 and between the thalamus and frontal cortex182”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [183] Salzwedel, A. P. et al. Prenatal drug exposure affects neonatal brain functional connectivity. J. Neurosci. 35, 5860–5869 (2015). source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [182] Salzwedel, A. P., Grewen, K. M., Goldman, B. D. & Gao, W. Thalamocortical functional connectivity and behavioral disruptions in neonates with prenatal cocaine exposure. Neurotoxicol. Teratol. 56, 16–25 (2016). source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Genomic variants influencing these processes are expected to have an important role in generating individual differences in brain structure and function.

    “Genomic variants that influence these processes are expected to have an important role in generating individual differences in brain structure and function.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Mutations in WWOX are associated with autosomal recessive spinocerebellar ataxia 12, mental retardation, microcephaly, and hypomyelination, among other neurological phenotypes.

    “Mutations in WWOX are associated with autosomal recessive spinocerebellar ataxia 12, mental retardation, microcephaly and hypomyelination164, among other neurological phenotypes.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [164] Tabarki, B. et al. Severe CNS involvement in WWOX mutations: description of five new cases. Am. J. Med. Genet. A 167A, 3209–3213 (2015). source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In 6- to 12-month-olds, interparental conflict is associated with stronger resting-state connectivity among hubs of the default network, posterior cingulate cortex, and anterior medial prefrontal cortex, and between posterior cingulate cortex and amygdala.

    “in 6- to 12-month-olds, interparental conflict is associated with stronger resting-state connectivity among hubs of the default network, posterior cingulate cortex and anterior medical prefrontal cortex, as well as between the posterior cingulate cortex and the amygdala179.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [179] Graham, A. M., Pfeifer, J. H., Fisher, P. A., Carpenter, S. & Fair, D. A. Early life stress is associated with default system integrity and emotionality during infancy. J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry 56, 1212–1222 (2015). source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In 2- to 25-month-old infants, ε4 carriers show lower myelin water fraction in precuneus, posterior and middle cingulate, lateral temporal cortex, and medial occipitotemporal regions, and greater myelin water fraction in extensive frontal regions compared with noncarriers.

    “2- to 25-month-old infants who were ε4 carriers showed lower myelin water fraction in the precuneus, the posterior and middle cingulate, the lateral temporal cortex and medial occipitotemporal regions — areas preferentially affected by Alzheimer disease — and greater myelin water fraction in extensive frontal regions compared with noncarriers172.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [172] Ursache, A. & Noble, K. G. Socioeconomic status, white matter, and executive function in children. Brain Behav. 6, e00531 (2016). source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In a study of antenatal maternal anxiety and infant COMT genotypes, neither maternal anxiety nor infant COMT genotype was individually related to regional cortical thickness.

    “Neither maternal anxiety nor infant COMT genotype were related to regional cortical thickness individually”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [159] Qiu, A. et al. COMT haplotypes modulate associations of antenatal maternal anxiety and neonatal cortical morphology. Am. J. Psychiatry 172, 163–172 (2015). source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    The first GWAS of neonatal brain structure requires independent replication, particularly for the imputed low-frequency IGFBP7 SNP absent from the largest racial/ethnic group.

    “This is the first study of its kind162 and independent replication is crucial, especially for the IGFBP7 intronic SNP, which was imputed, has a low minor allele frequency, and was not present in the largest racial/ethnic group in the study.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [162] Xia, K. et al. Genome-wide association analysis identifies common variants influencing infant brain volumes. Transl Psychiatry 7, e1188 (2017). source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Household income and maternal education are each correlated with within-network connectivity of the default resting-state network at 6 months of age.

    “Household income and the level of maternal education are each correlated with within-network connectivity of the default resting-state network at 6 months of age91.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [91] Doria, V. et al. Emergence of resting state networks in the preterm human brain. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 107, 20015–20020 (2010). source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In the interaction, maternal anxiety decreased cortical thickness in neonates with two Met COMT alleles but increased cortical thickness in neonates with two Val alleles.

    “maternal anxiety decreased cortical thickness in neonates with two copies of the Met COMT allele but increased cortical thickness in neonates with two copies of the Val allele.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [159] Qiu, A. et al. COMT haplotypes modulate associations of antenatal maternal anxiety and neonatal cortical morphology. Am. J. Psychiatry 172, 163–172 (2015). source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Cortical surface morphology, as determined by deformation of cortical surfaces, is associated with cognitive development in the first 2 years of life, and this association varies with age.

    “Cortical surface morphology, as determined by deformation of cortical surfaces (a measure of grey-matter density), is associated with cognitive development in the first 2 years of life, and this association varies with age197.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [197] Spann, M. N., Bansal, R., Rosen, T. S. & Peterson, B. S. Morphological features of the neonatal brain support development of subsequent cognitive, language, and motor abilities. Hum. Brain Mapp. 35, 4459–4474 (2014). source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    Imaging studies in early childhood offer the promise of understanding the early origins of, and genetic and environmental influences affecting, individual differences in cognition, behaviour and risk for neuropsychiatric disease, and these studies are beginning to fulfil these aims.

    “Imaging studies in early childhood offer the promise of understanding the early origins of, and genetic and environmental influences affecting, individual differences in cognition, behaviour and risk for neuropsychiatric disease, and these studies are beginning to fulfil these aims.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Early childhood is an understudied period.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    By birth, major white-matter tracts are in place and white-matter structural networks and sensorimotor resting-state functional networks are well developed.

    “by birth, major white-matter tracts are in place and white-matter structural networks and sensorimotor resting-state functional networks are well developed.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Children at risk of autism have higher FA values at 6 months and a slower increase of FA after 6 months, resulting in lower FA values at 24 months.

    “Children who are at risk of autism have higher FA values at 6 months and a slower increase of FA after 6 months, resulting in lower FA values at 24 months188”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [188] Wolff, J. J. et al. Differences in white matter fiber tract development present from 6 to 24 months in infants with autism. Am. J. Psychiatry 169, 589–600 (2012). source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    The first year of life is a period of robust grey-matter growth, rapid myelination and maturation of microstructure of existing white-matter tracts, and development of higher-order resting-state functional networks.

    “The first year of life is a period of robust grey-matter growth, rapid myelination and maturation of microstructure of existing white-matter tracts, as well as development of higher-order resting-state functional networks.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    By age 2 years, the fundamental structural and functional architecture of the brain seems to be in place, and later childhood brain maturation is much slower.

    “By age 2 years, the fundamental structural and functional architecture of the brain seems to be in place, and the brain maturation that occurs in later childhood is much slower.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
80 of 80

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Little is known about structural and functional brain development during early childhood, partly because of difficulties with image acquisition and analysis in very young children.

    “In spite of its importance, little is known about structural and functional brain development during this critical period, in part owing to difficulties with image acquisition and image analysis in very young children.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Very few postmortem histologic studies of early childhood cortical development exist.

    “There are very few postmortem histologic studies of early childhood cortical development; however, the studies that do exist are consistent with imaging studies and provide insights into the neurobiological process that underlie change observed in imaging studies.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Imaging studies cannot provide information at a cellular level.

    “While imaging studies cannot provide information at a cellular level, they have significantly improved our understanding of early childhood structural brain development in humans and complement postmortem studies (Box 1).”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Early childhood is an understudied period.

    “this important but still understudied period”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Imaging, genetic and environmental variables each contribute only a small percentage of variance to developmental outcomes.

    “the imaging, genetic and environmental variables that contribute a small percentage of variance.”
5 of 5

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • In the postnatal stage, in vivo tractography offers a superior tool to chart spatiotemporal maturation patterns of reconstructed tracts using quantitative dMRI metrics from infancy to adolescence.

    “In the postnatal stage, in vivo tractography offers a superior tool to chart the spatiotemporal maturation patterns of the reconstructed tracts by employing quantitative dMRI metrics from the infancy period (Dubois et al., 2014; Gilmore et al., 2018; Lebel and Deoni, 2018; Qiu et al., 2015; Vasung et al., 2019) to the adolescent stage (Lebel et al., 2019; Tamnes et al., 2018).”

    From Quantitative mapping of the brain’s structural connectivity using diffusion MRI tractography: A review (2022) · cites this paper as Gilmore et al., 2018

    The Introduction (White matter; page unavailable) says diffusion imaging visualizes major fibre tracts and measures their microstructure using AD, RD and FA. Structural development (White matter; page unavailable) describes how those measures change from infancy through later childhood and adolescence. The paper does not establish that in vivo tractography is a superior tool; the citing sentence assigns adolescence to other references. (LLM, conf=0.82)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Researchers have implemented dMRI tractography investigations across broad brain developmental stages from middle fetal stage to adulthood.

    “In the past decade, researchers have implemented dMRI tractography investigations across broad brain developmental stages ranging from the middle fetal stage to adulthood (Cao et al., 2017; Dubois et al., 2014; Gilmore et al., 2018; Huang, 2010; Lebel and Deoni, 2018; Lebel et al., 2019; Qiu et al., 2015; Zhao et al., 2019b).”

    From Quantitative mapping of the brain’s structural connectivity using diffusion MRI tractography: A review (2022) · cites this paper as Gilmore et al., 2018

    The White matter sections describe diffusion imaging of fibre tracts at birth and DTI studies of development through later childhood and adolescence; the References also list a DTI study spanning infancy to adulthood. Our copy does not document dMRI tractography investigations beginning in the middle fetal stage, so it does not support the full age range claimed. (LLM, conf=0.82)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • The human brain undergoes considerable changes during the first years of life.

    “The human brain undergoes considerable changes during the first years of life (Gilmore et al., 2018, Hadders-Algra, 2018)”

    From Resting brain activity in early childhood predicts IQ at 18 years (2023) · cites this paper as Gilmore et al., 2018

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 1

  1. Jones, E. G. The Thalamus (Springer Science & Business Media, 2012).

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Gilmore, J. H., Knickmeyer, R. C., & Gao, W.
Affiliations
  • University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (US)
  • Cedars-Sinai Medical Center (US)
Corresponding author
Gilmore, John H.
ORCID
Venue
Nature Reviews Neuroscience
Publisher
Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Published
2018-02-16
Volume
19
Issue
3
Pages
123-137
ISSN
  • 1471-003X (ISSN-L)
  • 1471-0048
DOI
10.1038/nrn.2018.1
PMC
PMC5987539
OpenAlex
W2788755901
Semantic Scholar
6e717ebb66b798e0412e68caf2fa9504239ca4c6
Cited by
1,013
References
250
Citations by year
2026: 142 · 2025: 168 · 2024: 176 · 2023: 156 · 2022: 136 · 2021: 98 · 2020: 74 · 2019: 46 · 2018: 16
FWCI
7.71
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
Locations
  • Nature reviews. Neuroscience (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
  • PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
Funders
  • National Institutes of Health (1r03da036645-01a1)
  • National Institute of Mental Health (R21MH104330, R33MH104330, U01MH070890, R01MH092335, R01MH111944, R01MH070890)
  • National Institute on Drug Abuse (R21DA043171, R03 DA036645)
  • National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (R21NS088975)
  • Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (R01HD053000, U54HD079124)
Topics
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Functional Brain Connectivity Studies
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Radiology, Nuclear Medicine and Imaging › Advanced Neuroimaging Techniques and Applications
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Pediatrics, Perinatology and Child Health › Fetal and Pediatric Neurological Disorders
Keywords
early childhood brain development, structural brain development, white matter development, brain networks, cognitive development, autism risk, schizophrenia risk, neuropsychiatric disorders, environmental influences on brain development, imaging biomarkers, cognitive outcome prediction
MeSH terms
Mental Disorders, Brain, Child Development, Cognition, Humans, Infant, Infant, Newborn, Neural Pathways, Risk Factors, Biomarkers, Gene-Environment Interaction, Neuroimaging, White Matter, Gray Matter

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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-05.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-05.

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