Rates of reinforcement and measures of compliance in free and protected contact elephant management systems
Abstract
Protected contact is an alternative to traditional captive elephant training techniques that emerged as a result of concerns for animal welfare and personnel safety. The present study documented the behavior of elephants and their animal care professionals to determine rates of reinforcement and measures of compliance under two handling systems. Behavioral data were collected from animal care professionals and elephants during the elephants' baths in both free contact (FC) and protected contact (PC). Positive reinforcement, in the form of food, was delivered, on average, nearly eight times more frequently in the PC condition. Further, the mean rate at which the animal care professionals used the ankus in the FC condition as negative reinforcement was similar to the mean rate at which they provided positive reinforcement to the elephants in the FC condition. Latencies between verbal commands and the elephants' behaviors demonstrated an inconsistent pattern, but were generally longer in the PC condition. The mean percent of "refusals" by the elephants was higher for most behaviors across elephants in the PC condition. The findings suggest that animal care professionals did not heavily rely on positive reinforcement in the FC condition to elicit desired behaviors from the elephants, but this was the case in the PC condition. We propose that longer latencies and higher mean percent of refusals by the elephants may indicate that they were exercising choice or control over their environment, which has been associated with improved well-being. Additional studies of this kind are needed to enable other institutions to make informed decisions about elephant management and welfare.
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- Authors
- Wilson, M. L., Perdue, B. M., Bloomsmith, M. A., & Maple, T. L.
- Affiliations
- Georgia State University (US)
- Agnes Scott College (US)
- Emory National Primate Research Center (US)
- Florida Atlantic University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Wilson, Megan L.
- Venue
- Zoo Biology
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2015-07-14
- Volume
- 34
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 431-437
- ISSN
- 0733-3188 (ISSN-L)
- 1098-2361
- OpenAlex
- W1901008107
- Cited by
- 24
- References
- 27
- Citations by year
- 2026: 2 · 2025: 2 · 2024: 4 · 2023: 1 · 2022: 5 · 2021: 3 · 2020: 3 · 2019: 3 · 2018: 1
- FWCI
- 0.54
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Zoo Biology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Elizabeth Smithgall-Watts endowment
- Zoo Atlanta's Charles Bailey foundation
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Veterinary › Small Animals › Animal Behavior and Welfare Studies
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Genetics › Human-Animal Interaction Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Behavioral and Psychological Studies
- Keywords
- captive elephants, positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, reinforcement rate, compliance, refusal behavior, animal welfare, zoo animal management
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Animal Husbandry, Animal Welfare, Animals, Zoo, Behavior, Animal, Elephants, Female, Humans, Male, Reinforcement, Psychology
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