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How Many Subjects Constitute a Study?
Abstract
In fMRI there are two classes of inference: one aims to make a comment about the "typical" characteristics of a population, and the other about "average" characteristics. The first pertains to studies of normal subjects that try to identify some qualitative aspect of normal functional anatomy. The second class necessarily applies to clinical neuroscience studies that want to make an inference about quantitative differences of a regionally specific nature. The first class of inferences is adequately serviced by conjunction analyses and fixed-effects models with relatively small numbers of subjects. The second requires random-effect analyses and larger cohorts.
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“However, small sample sizes can be informative about typicality of a feature in a population, when features are identified in the majority of cases sampled[18].”
From In vivo PET imaging of neuroinflammation in familial frontotemporal dementia (2021) · cites this paper as [18]
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“This approach accounts for the inter-individual variability of the BOLD responses and therefore permits inferences at the population level (Friston et al., 1996, 1999).”
Expressing our internal states and understanding those of others
Cesare, G. D., Dio, C. D., Marchi, M., & Rizzolatti, G. (2015) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1512133112 · Cited by 90
de Zubicaray, G. I., McMahon, K. L., Eastburn, M., & Wilson, S. J. (2002) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1006/nimg.2002.1135 · Cited by 92
Hagura, N., Oouchida, Y., Aramaki, Y., Okada, T., Matsumura, M., Sadato, N., & Naito, E. (2008) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhn068 · Cited by 93
“After the individual analysis, the individual images were incorporated into a second-level random-effect model to evaluate population inference (Friston et al. 1999).”
InfluentialAttentional modulation of emotional stimulus processing: An fMRI study using emotional expectancy
Bermpohl, F., Pascual‐Leone, Á., Amedi, A., Merabet, L. B., Fregni, F., Gaab, N., Alsop, D. C., Schlaug, G., & Northoff, G. (2005) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.20209 · Cited by 93
“For second-level random-effects analysis [Friston et al., 1999], these single-subject contrasts were entered into one-sample t-tests across the 17 subjects.”
MethodResultFalse positive rates in Voxel-based Morphometry studies of the human brain: Should we be worried?
Scarpazza, C., Tognin, S., Frisciata, S., Sartori, G., & Mechelli, A. (2015) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2015.02.008 · Cited by 83
Ferraro, S., Klugah‐Brown, B., Tench, C. R., Bazinet, V., Bore, M. C., Nigri, A., Demichelis, G., Bruzzone, M. G., Palermo, S., Zhao, W., et al. (2022) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2022.104915 · Cited by 87
Prefrontal cortex hemispheric specialization for categorical and coordinate visual spatial memory
Slotnick, S. D., & Moo, L. R. (2006) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2006.01.018 · Cited by 88
Naito, E., & Ehrsson, H. H. (2006) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.4835-05.2006 · Cited by 87
“The reliability of this model has been criticized, because the results can be biased by a minority of subjects showing very strong effects (Friston et al., 1999).”
BackgroundMoriguchi, Y., Ohnishi, T., Decety, J., Hirakata, M., Maeda, M., Matsuda, H., & Komaki, G. (2008) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.20653 · Cited by 91
“First-level contrasts were introduced in a second-level random-effect analysis [Friston et al., 1999] to allow for population inferences.”
MethodSchmithorst, V. J., & Holland, S. K. (2003) · Neuroscience Letters · doi:10.1016/s0304-3940(03)00714-6 · Cited by 88
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Wilke, M., Staudt, M., Juenger, H., Grodd, W., Braun, C., & Krägeloh‐Mann, I. (2008) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.20545 · Cited by 87
“Whether larger groups, potentially enabling parametrical analysis approaches [Friston et al., 1999], would have been able to shed more light on the question at hand, though, is difficult to tell.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialNeural substrates participating in acquisition of facial familiarity: an fMRI study
Kosaka, H., Omori, M., Iidaka, T., Murata, T., Shimoyama, T., Okada, T., Sadato, N., Yonekura, Y., & Wada, Y. (2003) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/s1053-8119(03)00447-6 · Cited by 94
“To make inferences at a single-group level (Friston et al., 1999), these images were analyzed with one-sample t tests on a voxel-by-voxel basis.”
MethodKupers, R. C., Svensson, P. J., & Jensen, T. S. (2004) · Pain · doi:10.1016/j.pain.2003.12.029 · Cited by 86
“Consequently, the statistical analysis was of the fixed-effect style which raises the problem of generalizability to the general population (Friston et al., 1999).”
BackgroundKraus, A., Valerius, G., Seifritz, E., Ruf, M., Bremner, J. D., Bohus, M., & Schmahl, C. G. (2009) · Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica · doi:10.1111/j.1600-0447.2009.01417.x · Cited by 87
The effect of working memory performance on functional MRI in schizophrenia
Thermenos, H. W., Goldstein, J. M., Buka, S. L., Poldrack, R. A., Koch, J., Tsuang, M. T., & Seidman, L. J. (2004) · Schizophrenia Research · doi:10.1016/j.schres.2004.07.021 · Cited by 87
“Contrast images for each subject were submitted to a group analysis, using a two-sample t-test (Friston et al., 1999) and treating subjects as a random effect.”
MethodNeural representation of visual concepts in people born blind
Striem-Amit, E., Wang, X., Bi, Y., & Caramazza, A. (2018) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-018-07574-3 · Cited by 91
Martinez, D. L., Canessa, N., Brusoni, S., Zollo, M., Hare, T. A., Alemanno, F., & Cappa, S. F. (2014) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2013.00927 · Cited by 84
“At the second (group) level, we ran an analysis of variance (ANOVA) (Friston et al., 1999), employing a general statistical threshold of p 0.05 corrected for multiple comparisons across all voxels in the brain using a FalseDiscovery-Rate procedure (Genovese et al., 2002).”
MethodInfluentialPain Processing in Medication Overuse Headache: A Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) Study
Ferraro, S., Grazzi, L., Mandelli, M. L., Aquino, D., Fiore, D. D., Usai, S., Bruzzone, M. G., Salle, F. D., Bussone, G., & Chiapparini, L. (2011) · Pain Medicine · doi:10.1111/j.1526-4637.2011.01183.x · Cited by 86
Imaging a cognitive model of apraxia: The neural substrate of gesture‐specific cognitive processes
Peigneux, P., der Linden, M. V., Garraux, G., Laureys, S., Degueldre, C., Aerts, J. J., Fiore, G. D., Moonen, G., Luxen, A., & Salmon, É. (2004) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.10161 · Cited by 86
“…in the present study have been performed using a mixed (random) effect model, which was explicitly intended to control interindividual variability [Friston et al., 1999b] and to highlight the brain areas in which conditionrelated CBF variations are detected consistently in each and every subject.”
MethodThe roles of the medial prefrontal cortex and striatum in reputation processing
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Sensorimotor-independent development of hands and tools selectivity in the visual cortex
Striem-Amit, E., Vannuscorps, G., & Caramazza, A. (2017) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1620289114 · Cited by 82
Kitada, R., Johnsrude, I. S., Kochiyama, T., & Lederman, S. J. (2008) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn.2009.21115 · Cited by 82
“First, individual contrasts for the haptic and visual object identification tasks were incorporated into a random effects model (Friston, Holmes, & Worsley, 1999 ).”
MethodTaniwaki, T., Okayama, A., Yoshiura, T., Togao, O., Nakamura, Y., Yamasaki, T., Ogata, K., Shigeto, H., Ohyagi, Y., Kira, J., et al. (2006) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2005.12.032 · Cited by 88
“In order to create activation maps representing main effects of movement rates (0th order), as well as linear (1st order) and nonlinear (2nd, 3rd and 4th order) changes of signals in relation to movement rates, random effect analysis was performed (Friston et al., 1999).”
MethodThe effect of gender on planning: An fMRI study using the Tower of London task
Boghi, A., Rasetti, R., Avidano, F., Manzone, C., Orsi, L., D'Agata, F., Caroppo, P., Bergui, M., Rocca, P., Pulvirenti, L., et al. (2006) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2006.07.022 · Cited by 101
“In order to make a population inference and a comparison of the task-related brain activations between gender subpopulations, random-effects analyses were performed (Friston et al., 1999).”
MethodHarada, T., Saito, D. N., Kashikura, K., Sato, T., Yonekura, Y., Honda, M., & Sadato, N. (2004) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.1395-04.2004 · Cited by 82
“Group analysis with random-effect model The weighted sum of the parameter estimates in the individual analysis constituted “contrast” images, which were used for the group analysis (Friston et al., 1999).”
MethodPhillips, H. N., Blenkmann, A. O., Hughes, L. E., Kochen, S. S., Bekinschtein, T. A., Cam‐CAN, & Rowe, J. B. (2016) · Cortex · doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2016.05.001 · Cited by 77
Koike, T., Sumiya, M., Nakagawa, E., Okazaki, S., & Sadato, N. (2019) · eNeuro · doi:10.1523/eneuro.0284-18.2019 · Cited by 84
“Second, summary data for each participant were incorporated into a second-level analysis using a randomeffects model (Friston et al., 1999) to make inferences at a population level.”
MethodBonelli, S. B., Powell, R., Thompson, P. J., Yogarajah, M., Focke, N. K., Stretton, J., Vollmar, C., Symms, M. R., Price, C. J., Duncan, J. S., et al. (2011) · Epilepsy Research · doi:10.1016/j.eplepsyres.2011.04.007 · Cited by 82
Neural correlates of semantic ambiguity processing during context verification
Hoenig, K., & Scheef, L. (2009) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2008.12.044 · Cited by 82
“Individual images of contrast parameter estimates for the sentence and target event types were then fed into a flexible factorial model at the second level to perform a group analysis in which inter-subject variation was treated as a random effect (Friston et al., 1999).”
MethodTakahashi, H., Terada, K., Morita, T., Suzuki, S., Haji, T., Kozima, H., Yoshikawa, M., Matsumoto, Y., Omori, T., Asada, M., et al. (2014) · Cortex · doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2014.03.011 · Cited by 85
The neural correlates of ‘vitality form’ recognition: an fMRI study
Cesare, G. D., Dio, C. D., Rochat, M. J., Sinigaglia, C., Bruschweiler‐Stern, N., Stern, D. N., & Rizzolatti, G. (2013) · Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience · doi:10.1093/scan/nst068 · Cited by 85
“Data were analysed using a random-effects model (Friston et al., 1999), implemented in a two-level procedure.”
MethodImpaired hippocampal function during the detection of novel words in schizophrenia
Weiss, A. P., Zalesak, M., DeWitt, I., GOFF, D. C., Kunkel, L., & Heckers, S. (2004) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2004.01.004 · Cited by 85
Reduced responsiveness is an essential feature of chronic fatigue syndrome: A fMRI study
Tanaka, M., Sadato, N., Okada, T., Mizuno, K., Sasabe, T., Tanabe, H. C., Saito, D. N., Onoe, H., Kuratsune, H., & Watanabe, Y. (2006) · BMC Neurology · doi:10.1186/1471-2377-6-9 · Cited by 84
Saito, D. N., Yoshimura, K., Kochiyama, T., Okada, T., Honda, M., & Sadato, N. (2005) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhi052 · Cited by 82
“To do this, the distribution of the stimulus onset asynchrony (SOAs) of each condition were determined as follows (Friston et al. 1999b): the order of 120 events, 30 for each condition, was randomly permutated to generate a set of three vectors (1 3 120 matrix) indicating the presence (1) or…”
MethodInfluentialHarada, T., Li, Z., & Chiao, J. (2010) · Social Neuroscience · doi:10.1080/17470910903374895 · Cited by 81
Neural changes following cognitive behaviour therapy for psychosis: a longitudinal study
Kumari, V., Fannon, D. G., PETERS, E. R., Ffytche, D. H., Sumich, A. L., Premkumar, P., Anilkumar, A. P., Andrew, C., Phillips, M. L., Williams, S., et al. (2011) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/awr154 · Cited by 87
In Medication‐Overuse Headache, fMRI Shows Long‐Lasting Dysfunction in Midbrain Areas
Ferraro, S., Grazzi, L., Muffatti, R., Nava, S., Ghielmetti, F., Bertolino, N., Mandelli, M. L., Visintin, E., Bruzzone, M. G., Nigri, A., et al. (2012) · Headache The Journal of Head and Face Pain · doi:10.1111/j.1526-4610.2012.02276.x · Cited by 83
Bayesian inference of population prevalence
Ince, R. A. A., Paton, A., Kay, J., & Schyns, P. G. (2021) · eLife · doi:10.7554/elife.62461 · Cited by 84
Bayesian second-level analysis of functional magnetic resonance images
Neumann, J., & Lohmann, G. (2003) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/s1053-8119(03)00443-9 · Cited by 79
“The resulting variance of the estimated response across subjects contains both within- and between-subject variance components in a proportion determined by the ratio of scans per subject to the number of subjects (Friston et al., 1999).”
BackgroundEttinger, U., Corr, P. J., Mofidi, A., Williams, S., & Kumari, V. (2013) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2013.00130 · Cited by 76
“Functional MRI data were analyzed using a random effect procedure (Friston et al., 1999).”
Multistable representation of speech forms: a functional MRI study of verbal transformations.
Sato, M., Baciu, M., Lœvenbruck, H., Schwartz, J.-L., Cathiard, M.-A., Segebarth, C., & Abry, C. (2004) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2004.07.055 · Cited by 78
“In order to test the potential predictive validity of our results and make inference at the population level, we subsequently proceeded to a random-effect analysis implemented with a two-level procedure (Holmes and Friston, 1998; see also Friston et al., 1999).”
Methodological considerations in rat brain BOLD contrast pharmacological MRI
Steward, C. A., Marsden, C. A., Prior, M. J. W., Morris, P. G., & Shah, Y. B. (2005) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-005-2213-7 · Cited by 78
“However, this method can lead to skewed results; for example, high activation in two out of six rats may be displayed using this type of analysis, and in order to make inferences of the brain areas that are likely to be affected by the drug in a given population, random effects analysis is employed (Friston et al. 199…”
BackgroundMethodNosarti, C., Rubia, K., Smith, A. B., Frearson, S. J., Williams, S., Rifkin, L., & Murray, R. M. (2006) · Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology · doi:10.1017/s0012162206000582 · Cited by 79
“While the statistical power of fMRI data has been shown to be relatively robust with small participant numbers (Friston et al. 1999), the case numbers of this study are relatively small for neuropsychological analyses (Rubia et al.”
BackgroundConscious and Unconscious Processing of Nonverbal Predictability in Wernicke's Area
Bischoff‐Grethe, A., Proper, S. M., Mao, H. Z., Daniels, K. A., & Berns, G. S. (2000) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.20-05-01975.2000 · Cited by 79
“A random-effects model was used to make statistical inferences (Friston et al., 1999).”
MethodMizuguchi, N., Nakata, H., Hayashi, T., Sakamoto, M., Muraoka, T., Uchida, Y., & Kanosue, K. (2013) · Neuroscience Research · doi:10.1016/j.neures.2013.03.012 · Cited by 82
Learning functional structure from fMR images
Zheng, X., & Rajapakse, J. C. (2006) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2006.01.031 · Cited by 77
“Group analyses were performed using a fixed-effect analysis (FFX) (Friston et al., 1999).”
MethodA Statistical Method for the Analysis of Positron Emission Tomography Neuroreceptor Ligand Data
Aston, J. A. D., Gunn, R. N., Worsley, K. J., Ma, Y., Evans, A. C., & Dagher, A. (2000) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1006/nimg.2000.0620 · Cited by 75
Self-citationMultisensory integration for timing engages different brain networks
Dhamala, M., Assisi, C. G., Jirsa, V., Steinberg, F. L., & Kelso, J. A. S. (2006) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2006.07.044 · Cited by 79
“The data were preprocessed and analyzed using Statistical Parametric Mapping (SPM2; Wellcome Department of Cognitive Neurology, London, UK) (Friston et al., 1995, 1999).”
InfluentialHigh Fetal Testosterone and Sexually Dimorphic Cerebral Networks in Females
Ciumas, C., Hirschberg, A. L., & Savic, I. (2008) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhn160 · Cited by 76
“With the present group sizes this method is regarded to provide data, which are representative for the entire group (Friston et al. 1999; Friston and Penny 2003).”
MethodThe neural basis for understanding non-intended actions
Buccino, G., Baumgaertner, A., Colle, L., Büchel, C., Rizzolatti, G., & Binkofski, F. (2007) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2007.03.036 · Cited by 75
Kuhtz-Buschbeck, J. P., van der Horst, C., Wolff, S., Filippow, N., Nabavi, A., Jansen, O., & Braun, P. M. (2007) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2006.12.032 · Cited by 77
Brain Activation during Smooth-Pursuit Eye Movements
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“(22) emphasized the need to select the appropriate analysis depending on the level of inference desired.”
BackgroundCommon neural substrates for the control and effects of visual attention and perceptual bistability
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Fronto-limbic circuitry in euthymic bipolar disorder: Evidence for prefrontal hyperactivation
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Long term treatment and disease severity change brain responses to levodopa in Parkinson's disease
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Contrasting Specializations for Facial Motion within the Macaque Face-Processing System
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“These contrast images were then entered into a second-level group analysis using a random-effects model [18], comparing (a) pre-trial and post-trial sessions within each group, (b) pre-trial sessions between two participant groups, and (c) attention trial session and the pre-trial session.”
MethodDouble Dissociation between Motor and Visual Imagery in the Posterior Parietal Cortex
Pelgrims, B., Andres, M., & Olivier, E. (2009) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhn248 · Cited by 77
Hasegawa, T., Matsuki, K.-I., Ueno, T., Maeda, Y., Matsue, Y., Konishi, Y., & Sadato, N. (2004) · Cognitive Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.cogbrainres.2004.04.005 · Cited by 75
TMS Pulses on the Frontal Eye Fields Break Coupling Between Visuospatial Attention and Eye Movements
Neggers, S. F. W., Huijbers, W., Vrijlandt, C. M., et al. (2007) · Journal of Neurophysiology · doi:10.1152/jn.00357.2007 · Cited by 74
“…as previously described was done on all subjects, and additionally a random effects (RFX) group-level analysis was run, using a one-sample t-test on the individual first-level activation maps (Friston et al. 1999; Holmes and Friston 1998), which is common practice for fMRI group statistics.”
MethodFunctional MRI of Verbal Self-monitoring in Schizophrenia: Performance and Illness-Specific Effects
Kumari, V., Fannon, D. G., Ffytche, D. H., Raveendran, V., Antonova, E., Premkumar, P., Cooke, M. A., Anilkumar, A. P., Williams, S., Andrew, C., et al. (2008) · Schizophrenia Bulletin · doi:10.1093/schbul/sbn148 · Cited by 76
Kameda, T., Inukai, K., Higuchi, S., Ogawa, A., Kim, H., Matsuda, T., & Sakagami, M. (2016) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1602641113 · Cited by 68
Global motion detection and censoring in high‐density diffuse optical tomography
Sherafati, A., Snyder, A. Z., Eggebrecht, A. T., Bergonzi, K. M., Burns‐Yocum, T. M., Lugar, H. M., Ferradal, S. L., Robichaux‐Viehoever, A., Smyser, C. D., Palanca, B. J. A., et al. (2020) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.25111 · Cited by 72
The posterior superior temporal sulcus is involved in social communication not specific for the eyes
Materna, S., Dicke, P. W., & Thier, P. (2008) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2008.05.016 · Cited by 73
Control of bladder sensations: An fMRI study of brain activity and effective connectivity
Kuhtz-Buschbeck, J. P., Gilster, R., van der Horst, C., Hamann, M., Wolff, S., & Jansen, O. (2009) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.04.020 · Cited by 70
“The contrast images of all 33 subjects were entered into a secondlevel random-effects analysis (Friston et al., 1999).”
In search of the Chinese self: An fMRI study
Zhang, L., Zhou, T., Zhang, J., Liu, Z., Fan, J., & Zhu, Y. (2006) · Science in China Series C Life Sciences · doi:10.1007/s11427-004-5105-x · Cited by 75
“Due to a relatively small number of subjects in these experiments, we used conjunction analysis, which adequately serviced some qualitative aspect of neural function anatomy in the studies of normal subjects [ 18 ] . For each conjunction analysis, areas of sig-”
MethodPostle, B. R., & D’Esposito, M. (2000) · Psychobiology · doi:10.3758/bf03331973 · Cited by 72
Differential activation in parahippocampal and prefrontal cortex during word and face encoding tasks
Leube, D., Erb, M., Grodd, W., Bartels, M., & Kircher, T. T. J. (2001) · Neuroreport · doi:10.1097/00001756-200108280-00035 · Cited by 70
Sex differences in the neural correlates of affective experience
Moriguchi, Y., Touroutoglou, A., Dickerson, B. C., & Barrett, L. F. (2014) · Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience · doi:10.1093/scan/nst030 · Cited by 70
“…with the hemodynamic responses were calculated with this GLM for each individual subject across whole brain, and were then entered into a second-level random-effect analysis (Friston et al., 1999) to allow for population inferences and group analysis to test hypotheses related to sex differences.”
MethodPrepulse inhibition and “psychosis-proneness” in healthy individuals: An fMRI study
Kumari, V., Antonova, E., & Geyer, M. A. (2008) · European Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.eurpsy.2007.11.006 · Cited by 70
Dick, F., Saygın, A. P., Galati, G., Pitzalis, S., Bentrovato, S., D’Amico, S., Wilson, S. M., Bates, E. A., & Pizzamiglio, L. (2007) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn.2007.19.5.799 · Cited by 70
“For whole-brain analyses, SPM99 was used to resample and spatially normalize functional images to the standard MNI template (Friston et al., 1995); voxel size after normalization was 3 � 3 � 3 mm. Data were then analyzed using a two-stage random-effects analysis ( Friston, Holmes, & Worsley, 1999 ).”
MethodNeural substrates of phasic alertness: A functional magnetic resonance imaging study
Yanaka, H. T., Saito, D. N., Uchiyama, Y., & Sadato, N. (2010) · Neuroscience Research · doi:10.1016/j.neures.2010.05.005 · Cited by 73
Long-Term Reproducibility Analysis of Fmri using Hand Motor Task
Yoo, S., Wei, X., Dickey, C. C., et al. (2005) · International Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1080/00207450490512650 · Cited by 68
“In the second stage, a one-tail t test was applied to 10 sets of contrast images to determine the group activation based on the general linear model (Friston et al., 1999).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialWiese, H., Stude, P., Nebel, K., de Greiff, A., Forsting, M., Diener, H., & Keidel, M. (2004) · Neuroscience Letters · doi:10.1016/j.neulet.2004.08.078 · Cited by 68
The Neural Bases of Social Intention Understanding: The Role of Interaction Goals
Canessa, N., Alemanno, F., Riva, F., Zani, A., Proverbio, A. M., Mannara, N., Perani, D., & Cappa, S. F. (2012) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0042347 · Cited by 69
“Statistical maps were generated using a random-effect model, implemented in a 2-levels procedure [44].”
MethodReliability of functional localization using fMRI
Swallow, K., Braver, T., Snyder, A., Speer, N., & Zacks, J. M. (2003) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/s1053-8119(03)00436-1 · Cited by 73
“(For more on this topic see Friston et al., 1999.)”
BackgroundTwo types of mental fatigue affect spontaneous oscillatory brain activities in different ways
Shigihara, Y., Tanaka, M., Ishii, A., Kanai, E., Funakura, M., & Watanabe, Y. (2013) · Behavioral and Brain Functions · doi:10.1186/1744-9081-9-2 · Cited by 67
“The weighted sum of the parameters estimated in the individual analyses consisted of “contrast” images, which were used for the group analyses [20].”
MethodInfluentialThe Neural Basis of Object-Context Relationships on Aesthetic Judgment
Kirk, U. (2008) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0003754 · Cited by 67
“Data from 15 subjects were applied in a random-effects (RFX) multiple regression analysis, whereby the reliability of the measurements was assessed in relation to the between subject variance [28].”
MethodJazz Drummers Recruit Language-Specific Areas for the Processing of Rhythmic Structure
Herdener, M., Humbel, T., Esposito, F., Habermeyer, B., Cattapan-Ludewig, K., & Seifritz, E. (2012) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhs367 · Cited by 71
“…inferences from statistical maps, the 6 beta estimates for the predictors of interest at each voxel entered appropriate t-tests with subjects as random observations to evaluate the main effects of rhythmic variations across all subjects (random effects analysis, (Friston et al. 1999)).”
MethodThe neural mechanisms of reliability weighted integration of shape information from vision and touch
Helbig, H. B., Ernst, M. O., Ricciardi, E., Pietrini, P., Thielscher, A., Mayer, K. M., Schultz, J., & Noppeney, U. (2011) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2011.09.072 · Cited by 70
“Inferences were made at the second level to allow for a random effects analysis and generalization to the population (Friston et al., 1999).”
Oshio, R., Tanaka, S., Sadato, N., Sokabe, M., Hanakawa, T., & Honda, M. (2010) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.07.034 · Cited by 67
“, 1995a) and a random effect model (Friston et al., 1999).”
BackgroundMethodBrain Networks for Integrative Rhythm Formation
Thaut, M. H., Demartin, M., & Sanes, J. N. (2008) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0002312 · Cited by 66
“The effects of the experimental design were estimated voxel-by-voxel [47–50].”
MethodNakashita, S., Saito, D. N., Kochiyama, T., Honda, M., Tanabe, H. C., & Sadato, N. (2007) · Brain Research Bulletin · doi:10.1016/j.brainresbull.2007.09.004 · Cited by 69
Jarcho, J. M., Fox, N. A., Pine, D. S., Etkin, A., Leibenluft, E., Shechner, T., & Ernst, M. (2012) · Biological Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2012.09.008 · Cited by 71
“Additionally, fMRI studies typically require ~ 20 subjects per group to achieve sufficient statistical power (Friston et al., 1999).”
BackgroundStaniak, A. (2003) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/13.5.475 · Cited by 67
“evaluated using the fixed-effect model, which is often adopted in explorations of generic aspects of functional brain architecture (Friston et al., 1999).”
MethodMotor Planning Is Facilitated by Adopting an Action's Goal Posture: An fMRI Study
Zimmermann, M., Meulenbroek, R. G. J., & de Lange, F. P. (2011) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhr098 · Cited by 65
The effect of social content on deductive reasoning: An fMRI study
Canessa, N., Gorini, A., Cappa, S. F., Piattelli‐Palmarini, M., Danna, M., Fazio, F., & Perani, D. (2005) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.20114 · Cited by 67
“Data were analyzed using a random-effect model to generalize results to the population from which subjects were extracted [Friston et al., 1999], implemented in a two-level procedure.”
MethodUnique and persistent individual patterns of brain activity across different memory retrieval tasks
Miller, M. B., Donovan, C.-L., Horn, J. D. V., German, E., Sokol‐Hessner, P., & Wolford, G. (2009) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.06.033 · Cited by 65
“As these methods have become more sophisticated and more population-based (Friston et al., 1999b; McNamee and Lazar, 2004), groupmaps have become very effective at isolating common areas of activations and many of these studies have been replicated numerous times.”
Neural correlates of semantic priming for ambiguous words: An event-related fMRI study
Copland, D. A., de Zubicaray, G. I., McMahon, K. L., & Eastburn, M. (2006) · Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2006.11.016 · Cited by 67
“…contrast images from the single subject fixed effects analyses were entered into one-tailed t-tests (df=13) in group random effects analyses to permit inferences about condition effects across participants (Friston et al., 1999), with the tvalues then transformed into corresponding Z-scores.”
MethodFunctional Neuroanatomy of Mirroring during a Unimanual Force Generation Task
Sehm, B., Pérez, M. A., Xu, B., Hidler, J. M., & Cohen, L. G. (2009) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhp075 · Cited by 71
Nakamura, K., Honda, M., Hirano, S., Oga, T., Sawamoto, N., Hanakawa, T., Inoue, H., Ito, J., Matsuda, T., Fukuyama, H., et al. (2002) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/089892902317205366 · Cited by 67
“Firstly, overall activation patterns for each task relative to the baseline were determined on the basis of a group-based statistical inference ( Friston, Holmes, & Worsley, 1999 ).”
Neuroticism and brain responses to anticipatory fear.
Kumari, V., Ffytche, D. H., Das, M., Wilson, G. D., Goswami, S., & Sharma, T. (2007) · Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.1037/0735-7044.121.4.643 · Cited by 63
Functional anatomy of derivational morphology.
Marangolo, P., Piras, F., Galati, G., & Burani, C. (2006) · Cortex; a journal devoted to the study of the nervous system and behavior · doi:10.1016/s0010-9452(08)70221-1 · Cited by 66
Attenuated Brain Response to Auditory Word Stimulation with Sevoflurane
Kerssens, C., Hamann, S. B., Peltier, S., Hu, X. P., Byas‐Smith, M. G., & Sebel, P. S. (2005) · Anesthesiology · doi:10.1097/00000542-200507000-00006 · Cited by 65
Involvement of prefrontal cortex in visual search
Anderson, E. J., Mannan, S., Husain, M., Rees, G. E., Sumner, P., Mort, D. J., McRobbie, D. W., & Kennard, C. (2007) · Experimental Brain Research · doi:10.1007/s00221-007-0860-0 · Cited by 64
“The Wrst level contrast images were taken to the second level and used as the basis for inter-subject comparisons in a group random eVects analysis ( Friston et al. 1999 ).”
MethodSpecificity of Esthetic Experience for Artworks: An fMRI Study
Dio, C. D., Canessa, N., Cappa, S. F., & Rizzolatti, G. (2011) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2011.00139 · Cited by 65
“Statistical inference was based on a random-effects approach (Friston et al., 1999).”
MethodConjunction group analysis: An alternative to mixed/random effect analysis
Heller, R., Golland, Y., Malach, R., & Benjamini, Y. (2007) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2007.05.051 · Cited by 60
“Note that the maximum u is 8 for the smoothed image, but only 6 for the un-smoothed image. from Friston et al. (1999) to get a lower bound on the proportion of the population that shows an effect in a voxel.”
Aramaki, Y., Honda, M., & Sadato, N. (2006) · Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2006.05.030 · Cited by 64
Visuospatial working memory and changes of the point of view in 3D space
Schmidt, D., Krause, B. J., Weiss, P. H., Fink, G. R., Shah, N. J., Amorim, M., Müller, H., & Berthoz, A. (2007) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2007.03.050 · Cited by 63
“Group analysis was based on a random-effect approach (Friston et al., 1999; Holmes and Friston, 1998).”
Method
Metadata
- Authors
- Friston, K. J., Holmes, A. P., & Worsley, K. J.
- Affiliations
- National Hospital for Neurology and Neurosurgery (GB)
- ORCID
- Friston, Karl J.
- Venue
- NeuroImage
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 1999-07
- Volume
- 10
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 1-5
- ISSN
- 1053-8119 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W1966363088
- Cited by
- 814
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 2 · 2025: 6 · 2024: 3 · 2023: 7 · 2022: 9 · 2021: 8 · 2020: 17 · 2019: 13 · 2018: 10 · 2017: 15 · 2016: 31 · 2015: 27 · 2014: 22 · 2013: 35 · 2012: 30
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- NeuroImage (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- UCL Discovery (University College London) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Wellcome Trust
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Functional Brain Connectivity Studies
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Radiology, Nuclear Medicine and Imaging › Advanced MRI Techniques and Applications
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Radiology, Nuclear Medicine and Imaging › Advanced Neuroimaging Techniques and Applications
- Keywords
- sample size, functional MRI, statistical inference, population inference, fixed effects model, random effects models, conjunction analysis, clinical neuroscience, functional anatomy, cohort size
- MeSH terms
- Data Interpretation, Statistical, Humans, Magnetic Resonance Imaging, Research Design, Models, Statistical, Cohort Studies, Patient Selection
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