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How Many Subjects Constitute a Study?
Abstract
In fMRI there are two classes of inference: one aims to make a comment about the "typical" characteristics of a population, and the other about "average" characteristics. The first pertains to studies of normal subjects that try to identify some qualitative aspect of normal functional anatomy. The second class necessarily applies to clinical neuroscience studies that want to make an inference about quantitative differences of a regionally specific nature. The first class of inferences is adequately serviced by conjunction analyses and fixed-effects models with relatively small numbers of subjects. The second requires random-effect analyses and larger cohorts.
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“However, small sample sizes can be informative about typicality of a feature in a population, when features are identified in the majority of cases sampled[18].”
From In vivo PET imaging of neuroinflammation in familial frontotemporal dementia (2021) · cites this paper as [18]
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“…permits generalization of results obtained from a sample to the population represented by that sample, an inferential step that cannot be made with the fixed-effects group analyses that have, until recently, been employed by the majority of fMRI experimentalists (Friston et al., 1999; Woods, 1996).”
BackgroundBrain response to putative pheromones in lesbian women
Berglund, H., Lindström, P., & Savic, I. (2006) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.0600331103 · Cited by 217
Altered Pain Processing in Veterans With Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
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Functional neuroimaging of odor imagery
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“In this application, conjunction analysis yields minimum activations that are consistently found in all included images (in our case, two subtraction images), whereas subtraction analysis relies on the average (Friston et al., 1999).”
de Zubicaray, G. I., Wilson, S. J., McMahon, K. L., & Muthiah, S. (2001) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.1054 · Cited by 210
“We compared lexical control and semantically-related distractor conditions in a fixed effects analysis with a contrast that tested the sum of pairwise differences between Fourier components [Friston et al., 1999].”
MethodSmith, S. M. (2004) · British Journal of Radiology · doi:10.1259/bjr/33553595 · Cited by 211
Thoenissen, D., Zilles, K., & Toni, I. (2002) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.22-20-09024.2002 · Cited by 209
“We thank M.-L. Grosse-Ruyken for expert assistance during scanning; F. Boers for help during the EMG measurements; and M. Niedeggen, G. Fernandez, R. E. Passingham, and two anonymous reviewers for invaluable comments.”
BackgroundMethodNeural Topography and Content of Movement Representations
de Lange, F. P., Peter Hagoort, A., & Toni, I. (2005) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/0898929052880039 · Cited by 207
Cortical and subcortical blood flow effects of subthalamic nucleus stimulation in PD
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Modulation of cerebellar activities by acupuncture stimulation: evidence from fMRI study
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“Group-level activation across the subjects was examined using SPM’s random effect model that employs a hierarchical two-stage procedure (Friston et al., 1999).”
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“Serial correlations in the data are taken into account by an autoregressive AR(1) model of noise covariance component, as used in fMRI time-series analysis (Friston et al. , 2002).”
Neural Basis of Δ-9-Tetrahydrocannabinol and Cannabidiol: Effects During Response Inhibition
Borgwardt, S. J., Allen, P., Bhattacharyya, S., Fusar-Poli, P., Crippa, J. A., Seal, M. L., Fraccaro, V., Atakan, Z., Martin-Santos, R., O'Carroll, C., et al. (2008) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2008.05.011 · Cited by 195
Paulesu, E., Sambugaro, E., Torti, T., Danelli, L., Ferri, F., Scialfa, G., Sberna, M., Ruggiero, G. M., Bottini, G., & Sassaroli, S. (2009) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291709005649 · Cited by 204
“To obtain results that can be generalized to a population level, the individual firstlevel data were then submitted to a second-level random effect analysis (Frison & Pocock, 1992 ; Friston et al. 1999).”
MethodFunctional connectivity of visual cortex in the blind follows retinotopic organization principles
Striem-Amit, E., Ovadia-Caro, S., Caramazza, A., Margulies, D. S., Villringer, A., & Amedi, A. (2015) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/awv083 · Cited by 194
“…(e.g. central visual field) was used as an individual predictor in a separate group analysis using a GLM in a hierarchical random effects analysis (Friston et al., 1999), while regressing out the time course from the other seed (e.g. peripheral visual field), so as to minimize the common…”
MethodInfluentialSala, J. B., Pia Rämä, A., & Courtney, S. M. (2002) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/s0028-3932(02)00166-5 · Cited by 192
Age‐related differences in the medial temporal lobe responses to emotional faces as revealed by fMRI
Iidaka, T., Okada, T., Murata, T., Omori, M., Kosaka, H., Sadato, N., & Yonekura, Y. (2002) · Hippocampus · doi:10.1002/hipo.1113 · Cited by 204
“Statistical analysis in the present study was conducted according to the random effect model (Friston et al., 1999) so that inferences could be made at the population level.”
The Statistical Analysis of Functional MRI Data
Lazar, N. A. (2008) · Statistics in the health sciences · doi:10.1007/978-0-387-78191-4 · Cited by 197
Becerra, L. R., Morris, S., Bazes, S., Gostic, R., Sherman, S. J., Gostic, J., Pendse, G., Moulton, E. A., Scrivani, S. J., Keith, D. A., et al. (2006) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.2305-06.2006 · Cited by 191
“A fixed-effects model was used because of the small cohort (Friston et al., 1999; Worsley, 2001) Statistical maps were inspected for each individual to rule out results biased by a small number of highly active subjects.”
MethodMeltzer, J. A., Negishi, M., Mayes, L. C., & Constable, R. T. (2007) · Clinical Neurophysiology · doi:10.1016/j.clinph.2007.07.023 · Cited by 207
The Different Neural Correlates of Action and Functional Knowledge in Semantic Memory: An fMRI Study
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“Statistical maps were generated using a random-effect model (Friston et al. 1999), implemented in a 2-level procedure.”
MethodThe human action recognition system and its relationship to Broca’s area: an fMRI study
Hamzei, F., Rijntjes, M., Dettmers, C., Glauche, V., Weiller, C., & Büchel, C. (2003) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/s1053-8119(03)00087-9 · Cited by 193
“REST (Friston et al., 1999).”
Differential cortical activation during voluntary and reflexive saccades in man
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“The event-related analysis was performed using the standard hemodynamic response function (canonical HRF) provided within SPM-99, according to methods established by others (Josephs et al., 1997; Friston et al., 1998).”
InfluentialNeural substrates of sarcasm: A functional magnetic-resonance imaging study
Uchiyama, H. T., Seki, A., Kageyama, H., Saito, D. N., Koeda, T., Ohno, K., & Sadato, N. (2006) · Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2006.09.088 · Cited by 184
Kosaka, H., Omori, M., Murata, T., Iidaka, T., Yamada, H., Okada, T., Takahashi, T., Sadato, N., Itoh, H., Yonekura, Y., et al. (2002) · Schizophrenia Research · doi:10.1016/s0920-9964(01)00324-3 · Cited by 186
“To make inferences at a single-group level (Friston et al., 1999), these images were analyzed with one-sample t-tests on a voxel-byvoxel basis.”
MethodSprenger, C., Bingel, U., & Büchel, C. (2011) · Pain · doi:10.1016/j.pain.2010.11.018 · Cited by 192
Striem-Amit, E., & Amedi, A. (2014) · Current Biology · doi:10.1016/j.cub.2014.02.010 · Cited by 192
Neural substrates of tactile imagery: a functional MRI study
Yoo, S., Freeman, D. K., McCarthy, J. J., & Jolesz, F. A. (2003) · Neuroreport · doi:10.1097/00001756-200303240-00011 · Cited by 183
The large-Scale Organization of “Visual” Streams Emerges Without Visual Experience
Striem-Amit, E., Dakwar-Kawar, O., Reich, L., & Amedi, A. (2011) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhr253 · Cited by 190
“All the data from these subgroups were subjected to several converging analyses, including random-effect (RFX, see details below; Friston et al. 1999) analyses.”
MethodThe neural basis of academic achievement motivation
Mizuno, K., Tanaka, M., Ishii, A., Tanabe, H. C., Onoe, H., Sadato, N., & Watanabe, Y. (2008) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2008.04.253 · Cited by 182
“Next, the contrast images corresponding to each condition in each subject were used for group analyses with a random-effects model to obtain population inferences (Friston et al., 1999).”
Natural facial motion enhances cortical responses to faces
Schultz, J., & Pilz, K. S. (2009) · Experimental Brain Research · doi:10.1007/s00221-009-1721-9 · Cited by 177
“step mixed-eVects analysis was used, as is common in SPM for group analyses (Friston et al. 1999).”
Le, D. S. N. T., Pannacciulli, N., Chen, K., Parigi, A. D., Salbe, A. D., Reiman, E. M., & Krakoff, J. A. (2006) · American Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1093/ajcn/84.4.725 · Cited by 181
Attenuated Left Prefrontal Activation during a Verbal Fluency Task in Patients with Depression
Okada, G., Okamoto, Y., Morinobu, S., Yamawaki, S., & Yokota, N. (2003) · Neuropsychobiology · doi:10.1159/000068871 · Cited by 178
Crossed cerebro–cerebellar language dominance
Jansen, A., Flöel, A., van Randenborgh, J., Konrad, C., Rotte, M., Förster, A., Deppe, M., & Knecht, S. (2004) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.20077 · Cited by 178
“This type of analysis aimed to establish the observed effect as a “typical” characteristic of the population from which the group was sampled [Friston et al., 1999a,b].”
MethodAsahi, S., Okamoto, Y., Okada, G., Yamawaki, S., & Yokota, N. (2004) · European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience · doi:10.1007/s00406-004-0488-z · Cited by 178
“Using group analysis according to a random effect model [ 18 ], we identified regions that showed significant responses to the No-Go condition compared with that of the Go condition as areas related to response inhibition.”
MethodRubia, K., Lee, F., Cleare, A. J., Tunstall, N., Fu, C. H. Y., Brammer, M., & McGuire, P. (2005) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-004-2116-z · Cited by 171
“While the statistical power of fMRI data has been shown to be relatively robust with small subject numbers (Friston et al. 1999), this is not the case for neuropsychological data.”
BackgroundBai, W., Shi, W., de Marvao, A., Dawes, T. J. W., O’Regan, D. P., Cook, S. A., & Rueckert, D. (2015) · Medical Image Analysis · doi:10.1016/j.media.2015.08.009 · Cited by 171
“(Friston et al., 1999) and (Hayasaka et al., 2007) explored this question for brain image studies and suggested that random models and statistical power analysis can be used to determine the population size.”
Koike, T., Tanabe, H. C., Okazaki, S., Nakagawa, E., Sasaki, A. T., Shimada, K., Sugawara, S. K., Takahashi, H. K., Yoshihara, K., Bosch‐Bayard, J., et al. (2015) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2015.09.076 · Cited by 179
“To test whether the JA-related eyeblink synchronizationwas pair specific, synchronizationwas also evaluated between randomly generated pseudo pairs in each of the experimental conditions. fMRI image preprocessing Image preprocessing was performed using SPM8 (Wellcome Trust Centre for Neuroimaging, London, UK) implemen…”
MethodInfluentialGrabski, K., Lamalle, L., Vilain, C., Schwartz, J., Vallée, N., Troprés, I., Baciu, M., Bas, J. L., & Sato, M. (2011) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.21363 · Cited by 181
“To draw population-based inferences (Friston et al., 1999), a secondlevel random effect group analysis was carried-out.”
MethodNeural correlates of automatic beliefs about gender and race
Knutson, K. M., Mah, L., Manly, C. F., & Grafman, J. H. (2006) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.20320 · Cited by 172
“Random-effects analyses treat participants as a random effect, allowing inferences to be made regarding the general population, rather than the particular study sample [Friston et al., 1999].”
BackgroundHanakawa, T., Honda, M., Okada, T., Fukuyama, H., & Shibasaki, H. (2003) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/s1053-8119(03)00050-8 · Cited by 171
“The effects of interest within each group were tested in terms of the conjoint effects across subjects (Friston et al., 1999).”
Musical Training Induces Functional Plasticity in Human Hippocampus
Herdener, M., Esposito, F., Salle, F. D., Boller, C., Hilti, C. C., Habermeyer, B., Scheffler, K., Wetzel, S. G., Seifritz, E., & Cattapan-Ludewig, K. (2010) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.4513-09.2010 · Cited by 164
Human striatal activation reflects degree of stimulus saliency
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Vowel sound extraction in anterior superior temporal cortex
Obleser, J., Boecker, H., Drzezga, A., Haslinger, B., Hennenlotter, A., Roettinger, M., Eulitz, C., & Rauschecker, J. P. (2006) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.20201 · Cited by 168
“The most feasible explanation for this incompatibility arises from a difference between models: in the more sensitive fixed-effects model, strong activation in a few subjects suffices for a significant group effect [Friston et al., 1999].”
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Bertolino, A., Rubino, V., Sambataro, F., Blasi, G., Latorre, V., Fazio, L., Caforio, G., Petruzzella, V., Kolachana, B. S., Hariri, A. R., et al. (2006) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.03.078 · Cited by 174
Dissociating Neural Mechanisms of Temporal Sequencing and Processing Phonemes
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“13, 17–26. effects analysis for a particular effect (Friston et al., 1999).”
BackgroundNeural Processing of Auditory Looming in the Human Brain
Seifritz, E., Neuhoff, J. G., Bilecen, D., Scheffler, K., Mustovic, H., Schächinger, H., Elefante, R., & Di Salle, F. (2002) · Current Biology · doi:10.1016/s0960-9822(02)01356-8 · Cited by 164
Lewis, R., & Noppeney, U. (2010) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.5745-09.2010 · Cited by 173
“Inferences were made at the second level to allow a random-effects analysis and inference at the population level (Friston et al., 1999).”
BackgroundMantani, T., Okamoto, Y., Shirao, N., Okada, G., & Yamawaki, S. (2005) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.01.047 · Cited by 171
Postle, B. R., Zarahn, E., & D’Esposito, M. (2000) · Brain Research Protocols · doi:10.1016/s1385-299x(99)00053-7 · Cited by 164
Brain Activations during Visual Search: Contributions of Search Efficiency versus Feature Binding
Nobre, A. C., Coull, J. T., Walsh, V., & Frith, C. (2002) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1006/nimg.2002.1329 · Cited by 166
“Statistical comparisons between experimental factors used linear contrasts in fixed-effects and random-effects analyses of variance (Friston et al., 1999), after scaling for global signal values in individual subjects.”
BackgroundEffects of estrogen variation on neural correlates of emotional response inhibition
Amin, Z., Epperson, C. N., Constable, R. T., & Canli, T. (2006) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2006.03.013 · Cited by 163
Changes of Cortico-striatal Effective Connectivity during Visuomotor Learning
Toni, I. (2002) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/12.10.1040 · Cited by 163
“The sensitivity of this type of analysis is higher than the sensitivity achieved by a random-effect analysis, thus allowing for the detection of subtle effects (Friston et al., 1999).”
Fusar-Poli, P., Allen, P., Bhattacharyya, S., Crippa, J. A., Mechelli, A., Borgwardt, S., Martin-Santos, R., Seal, M. L., O'Carrol, C., Atakan, Z., et al. (2010) · The International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1017/s1461145709990617 · Cited by 163
“Our group sizes were modest as pseudo-randomized, placebo-controlled, repeated-measures, within-subject design studies are logistically demanding (Friston et al. 1999).”
Screening for Partial Conjunction Hypotheses
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Cusack, R., Vicente-Grabovetsky, A., Mitchell, D. J., Wild, C. J., Auer, T., Linke, A. C., & Peelle, J. E. (2015) · Frontiers in Neuroinformatics · doi:10.3389/fninf.2014.00090 · Cited by 144
“…in individual studies has grown for many reasons, including: the increasing availability of MRI scanners; a move from fixed-to random-effects designs (Friston et al., 1999; Mumford and Nichols, 2008); a demand for greater replication in neuroimaging (“The dilemma of weak neuroimaging papers,”…”
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“cies and perform a test at each voxel in these maps, i.e. we have to adjust for multiple comparisons. To do so, we need to specify a spatially extended version of the prevalence null. Again following Friston et al. (1999a), our spatially extended null hypothesis is: — there is an effect with prevalence g g0 in a small…”
InfluentialNeural Substrates of Response-based Sequence Learning using fMRI
Bischoff‐Grethe, A., Goedert, K. M., Willingham, D. T., & Grafton, S. T. (2004) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/089892904322755610 · Cited by 165
“Analysis was restricted to the low-recall group using random effects (Friston et al., 1999) at p .005 (uncorrected).”
MethodMiller, M. B., Horn, J. D. V., Wolford, G., Handy, T. C., Valsangkar-Smyth, M., Inati, S., Grafton, S. T., & Gazzaniga, M. S. (2002) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/089892902760807203 · Cited by 158
“Indeed, group analysis can be very informative in identifying common regions of activity for a given task, and there has been much effort in determining the most appropriate method of group analysis for a variety of experimental situations (Friston et al., 1999).”
BackgroundMethodPooling fMRI data: meta-analysis, mega-analysis and multi-center studies
Costafreda, S. G. (2009) · Frontiers in Neuroinformatics · doi:10.3389/neuro.11.033.2009 · Cited by 166
“…while functional neuroimaging publications do not always disclose enough methodological detail to ascertain whether fi xed or random-effects multisubject analysis was performed, this methodological choice infl uences the sensitivity and generalizability of the analysis (Friston et al., 1999).”
BackgroundKumari, V., Gray, J. A., Geyer, M. A., Ffytche, D. H., Soni, W., Mitterschiffthaler, M. T., Vythelingum, G. N., Simmons, A., Williams, S., & Sharma, T. (2003) · Psychiatry Research Neuroimaging · doi:10.1016/s0925-4927(02)00123-3 · Cited by 159
“Fixed effect models are more sensitive than random effect models when subject numbers or effect sizes are small, their disadvantages being that the results are not applicable to the population as a whole and that fixed effect models are not appropriate for comparing groups (Friston et al., 1999).”
BackgroundBohon, C., & Stice, E. (2011) · International Journal of Eating Disorders · doi:10.1002/eat.20869 · Cited by 153
Naito, E., Nakashima, T., Kito, T., Aramaki, Y., Okada, T., & Sadato, N. (2007) · European Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1111/j.1460-9568.2007.05587.x · Cited by 168
Brain–machine interface via real-time fMRI: Preliminary study on thought-controlled robotic arm
Lee, J., Ryu, J., Jolesz, F. A., Cho, Z., & Yoo, S. (2008) · Neuroscience Letters · doi:10.1016/j.neulet.2008.11.024 · Cited by 161
Pitch Processing Sites in the Human Auditory Brain
Hall, D. A., & Plack, C. J. (2008) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhn108 · Cited by 161
“05, corrected for multiple comparisons) and it assesses the statistical significance of activity by comparing its mean value to its variability across subjects (Friston et al. 1999).”
BackgroundInfluentialPinel, P., Thirion, B., Mériaux, S., Jobert, A., Serres, J., Bihan, D. L., Poline, J., & Dehaene, S. (2007) · BMC Neuroscience · doi:10.1186/1471-2202-8-91 · Cited by 176
Cortical Activations during judgments about the self and an other person
Seger, C. A., Stone, M. V., & Keenan, J. P. (2004) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2004.02.003 · Cited by 157
Identifying brain regions for integrative sensorimotor processing with ankle movements
Ciccarelli, O., Toosy, A., Marsden, J. F., Wheeler‐Kingshott, C. A. M. G., Sahyoun, C. P., Matthews, P. M., Miller, D. H., & Thompson, A. J. (2005) · Experimental Brain Research · doi:10.1007/s00221-005-2335-5 · Cited by 160
“One-sample t-tests were then performed for each of these four groups of contrasts using a random-effects approach (Friston et al. 1999; Worsley et al. 1996).”
MethodLamm, C., Windischberger, C., Leodolter, U., Moser, E., & Bauer, H. (2001) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1006/nimg.2001.0850 · Cited by 156
An empirical investigation into the number of subjects required for an event-related fMRI study
Murphy, K., & Garavan, H. (2004) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2004.02.005 · Cited by 154
Auditory comprehension of language in young children: Neural networks identified with fMRI
Ahmad, Z., Balsamo, L. M., Sachs, B. C., Xu, B., & Gaillard, W. D. (2003) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/01.wnl.0000059865.32155.86 · Cited by 154
Sensitive Period for a Multimodal Response in Human Visual Motion Area MT/MST
Bedny, M., Konkle, T., Pelphrey, K. A., Saxe, R. R., & Pascual‐Leone, Á. (2010) · Current Biology · doi:10.1016/j.cub.2010.09.044 · Cited by 156
“Due to the small number of late blind individuals who are totally blind and because whole-brain random effects analyses require a large number of participants [14], only ROI analyses were used to compare late blind adults to the remaining groups.”
Functional connectivity between somatosensory and visual cortex in early blind humans
Wittenberg, G. F., Werhahn, K. J., Wassermann, E. M., Herscovitch, P., & Cohen, L. G. (2004) · European Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1111/j.1460-9568.2004.03630.x · Cited by 150
Pannacciulli, N., Le, D. S. N. T., Salbe, A. D., Chen, K., Reiman, E. M., Tataranni, P. A., & Krakoff, J. A. (2007) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2006.12.035 · Cited by 159
“We performed a two-level, random-effects analysis since this more stringent statistical approach allows for making a stronger and more generalizable inference about quantitative differences of a regionally specific nature compared to a single-level, fixedeffects analysis, as previously reported (Friston et al., 1999).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialNakamura, K., Dehaene, S., Jobert, A., Bihan, D. L., & Kouider, S. (2005) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/0898929054021166 · Cited by 155
“Group-based statistical inference was made using a random effect model ( Friston, Holmes, & Worsley, 1999 ).”
MethodA long-range cortical network emerging with theta oscillation in a mental task
Mizuhara, H., Wang, L., KOBAYASHI, K., & Yamaguchi, Y. (2004) · Neuroreport · doi:10.1097/01.wnr.0000126755.09715.b3 · Cited by 152
Involvement of both prefrontal and inferior parietal cortex in dual-task performance
Collette, F., Olivier, L., der Linden, M. V., Laureys, S., Delfiore, G., Luxen, A., & Salmon, É. (2005) · Cognitive Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.cogbrainres.2005.01.023 · Cited by 149
“The random effect model is based on the approach of mean summary statistics on repeated measures [27].”
MethodNeural correlates of metaphor processing in schizophrenia
Kircher, T. T. J., Leube, D., Erb, M., Grodd, W., & Rapp, A. M. (2006) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2006.08.044 · Cited by 155
Neural foundations of emerging route knowledge in complex spatial environments
Wolbers, T., Weiller, C., & Büchel, C. (2004) · Cognitive Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.cogbrainres.2004.06.013 · Cited by 146
“These pairs always consisted of buildings that were located at adjacent intersections in the environment; none of the trials depicted landmarks from the same or from remote intersections.”
BackgroundMale-to-Female Transsexuals Show Sex-Atypical Hypothalamus Activation When Smelling Odorous Steroids
Berglund, H., Lindström, P., Dhejne, C., & Savic, I. (2007) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhm216 · Cited by 151
“With the presently used group size, this method is regarded to provide data, which are representative for the entire group (Friston et al. 1999).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialV1 Activation in Congenitally Blind Humans is Associated with Episodic Retrieval
Raz, N., Amedi, A., & Zohary, E. (2005) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhi026 · Cited by 155
Independent vector analysis (IVA): Multivariate approach for fMRI group study
Lee, J., Lee, T.-W., Jolesz, F. A., & Yoo, S. (2007) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2007.11.019 · Cited by 151
“The resulting contrast images were then entered into a second-level group analysis using the RFX model (Friston et al., 1999), whereby one-sample t-test was commonly applied to obtain a group activation map for each condition.”
MethodInfluentialActivity in Human Frontal Cortex Associated with Spatial Working Memory and Saccadic Behavior
Postle, B. R., Berger, J. S., Taich, A. M., & D’Esposito, M. (2000) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/089892900564028 · Cited by 147
On the neural basis of focused and divided attention
Nebel, K., Wiese, H., Stude, P., de Greiff, A., Diener, H.-C., & Keidel, M. (2005) · Cognitive Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.cogbrainres.2005.09.011 · Cited by 149
Johnson, S. C., Saykin, A. J., Baxter, L. C., Flashman, L. A., Santulli, R. B., McAllister, T. W., & Mamourian, A. C. (2000) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1006/nimg.1999.0530 · Cited by 159
Walters, N. B., Egan, G. F., Kril, J. J., Kean, M. J., Waley, P., Jenkinson, M., & Watson, J. D. G. (2003) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.0437896100 · Cited by 142
Colasanti, A., Guo, Q., Giannetti, P., Wall, M. B., Newbould, R. D., Bishop, C., Onega, M., Nicholas, R. S., Ciccarelli, O., Muraro, P. A., et al. (2015) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2015.11.022 · Cited by 148
“This method is appropriate for examination of effects in samples of particular patient groups, as used here, but it limits the generalization of findings to the whole population, and therefore the extrapolation of our findings to the wider MS population must be made cautiously (62).”
Cortical plasticity associated with stuttering therapy
Neumann, K., Preibisch, C., Euler, H. Α., von Gudenberg, A. W., Lanfermann, H., Gall, V., & Giraud, A. (2005) · Journal of Fluency Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jfludis.2004.12.002 · Cited by 145
A 4.0-T fMRI study of brain connectivity during word fluency in first-episode schizophrenia
Boksman, K., Théberge, J., Williamson, P., Drost, D. J., MALLA, A. K., Densmore, M., Takhar, J., Pavlosky, W. F., Menon, R. S., & Neufeld, R. W. J. (2004) · Schizophrenia Research · doi:10.1016/j.schres.2004.09.025 · Cited by 144
“This did not allow application of alternative statistical models, such as random or mixed-effects models (Kirk, 1995; Friston et al., 1999).”
MethodRodd, J. M., Longe, O. A., Randall, B., & TYLER, L. K. (2009) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2009.12.035 · Cited by 147
Navigation ability dependent neural activation in the human brain: An fMRI study
Ohnishi, T., Matsuda, H., Hirakata, M., & Ugawa, Y. (2006) · Neuroscience Research · doi:10.1016/j.neures.2006.04.009 · Cited by 137
Gitelman, D. R., Parrish, T. B., Friston, K. J., & Mesulam, M. M. (2002) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1006/nimg.2001.1006 · Cited by 139
Self-citationLacourse, M. G., Turner, J. A., Randolph-Orr, E., Schandler, S. L., & Cohen, M. J. (2004) · The Journal of Rehabilitation Research and Development · doi:10.1682/jrrd.2004.04.0505 · Cited by 140
The cerebellum and decision making under uncertainty
Blackwood, N., Ffytche, D. H., Simmons, A., Bentall, R. P., Murray, R. M., & Howard, R. J. (2004) · Cognitive Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.cogbrainres.2003.12.009 · Cited by 139
How atypical is atypical language dominance?
Knecht, S., Jansen, A., Frank, A., van Randenborgh, J., Sommer, J. B., Kanowski, M., & Heinze, H. J. (2003) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/s1053-8119(03)00039-9 · Cited by 140
Neural representations of pantomimed and actual tool use: Evidence from an event-related fMRI study
Hermsdörfer, J., Terlinden, G., Mühlau, M., Goldenberg, G., & Wohlschläger, A. (2007) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2007.03.037 · Cited by 136
The neurobiology of adaptive learning in reading: A contrast of different training conditions
Sandak, R., Mencl, W. E., Frost, S. J., Rueckl, J. G., Katz, L. D., Moore, D., Mason, S. A., Fulbright, R. K., Constable, R. T., & Pugh, K. R. (2004) · Cognitive Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3758/cabn.4.1.67 · Cited by 135
Podzebenko, K., Egan, G. F., & Watson, J. D. G. (2002) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1006/nimg.2001.0999 · Cited by 134
Allen, P., Luigjes, J., Howes, O. D., Egerton, A., Hirao, K., Valli, I., Kambeitz, J., Fusar-Poli, P., Broome, M., & McGuire, P. (2012) · Schizophrenia Bulletin · doi:10.1093/schbul/sbr194 · Cited by 129
“However, in functional neuroimaging studies, the use of a random effect approach with small sample sizes typically results in reduced sensitivity rather than false positive results; a small sample size will result in a small number of degrees of freedom, resulting in a less sensitive statistical analysis.(39) The find…”
Metadata
- Authors
- Friston, K. J., Holmes, A. P., & Worsley, K. J.
- Affiliations
- National Hospital for Neurology and Neurosurgery (GB)
- ORCID
- Friston, Karl J.
- Venue
- NeuroImage
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 1999-07
- Volume
- 10
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 1-5
- ISSN
- 1053-8119 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W1966363088
- Cited by
- 814
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 2 · 2025: 6 · 2024: 3 · 2023: 7 · 2022: 9 · 2021: 8 · 2020: 17 · 2019: 13 · 2018: 10 · 2017: 15 · 2016: 31 · 2015: 27 · 2014: 22 · 2013: 35 · 2012: 30
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- NeuroImage (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- UCL Discovery (University College London) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Wellcome Trust
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Functional Brain Connectivity Studies
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Radiology, Nuclear Medicine and Imaging › Advanced MRI Techniques and Applications
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Radiology, Nuclear Medicine and Imaging › Advanced Neuroimaging Techniques and Applications
- Keywords
- sample size, functional MRI, statistical inference, population inference, fixed effects model, random effects models, conjunction analysis, clinical neuroscience, functional anatomy, cohort size
- MeSH terms
- Data Interpretation, Statistical, Humans, Magnetic Resonance Imaging, Research Design, Models, Statistical, Cohort Studies, Patient Selection
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